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of  Bible  Cl 


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LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class 


THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES: 
PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS 


The  TEACHING  OF 
BIBLE  CLASSES 

PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS 


With  special  reference  to 
Classes  of  Young  Men  and  Boys 


EDWIN   F.  SEE 
Q 


Of  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

F 


NEW  YORK 

THE  INTERNATIONAL  COMMITTEE  OF 

YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATIONS 

1905 


Copyright,  1906,  by 
The  International  Committee  of 
Young  Men's  Christian  Associations. 


CONTENTS 


PART   ONE 


THE   TEACHER:     HIS   WORK,   QUALIFICATIONS 
AND   PREPARATION. 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION    vii 

I.    WHAT  Is  TEACHING? 1 

II.     THB  TEACHER'S  QUALIFICATIONS 7 

III.  THE  TEACHER'S  PREPARATION 13 

IV.  THE  CONNECTION  OF  BODY,  MIND  AND  SPIRIT 18 

V.    ADOLESCENCE.  . .  25 


PART   TWO 

THE   STUDENT:     HIS  PHYSICAL,  MENTAL  AND 
SPIRITUAL  NATURE. 

VI.  ATTENTION — INTEREST 35 

VII.  PERCEPTION — APPERCEPTION 43 

VIII.  MEMORY — IMAGINATION 49 

IX.  FEELINGS — WILL 57 

X.  HABIT 65 

XI.  THE  SPIRITUAL  NATURE 71 

XII,  REVIEW 79 

V 


CONTENTS 


PAET  THREE 

THE  LESSON:  THE  TEACHER'S  APPROACH  TO 
THE  STUDENT. 

PAGE 

XIII.  ADAPTATION 83 

XIV.  METHOD 90 

XV.     REVIEWS 96 

XVI.  THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING 102 

XVII.  THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING  (Concluded) 109 

XVIII.  THE  ART  OF  ILLUSTRATING 115 

XIX.  THE  ART  OF  ILLUSTRATING  (Concluded) 124 

XX.  THE  LESSON   STUDY 130 

XXI.  THE  TEACHING  PLAN  ..  .  137 


PART    FOUR 
FINAL  SURVEY 


XXII.    THE    TEACHER'S    RELATION    TO    THE    INDIVIDUAL 

STUDENT 145 

XXIII.     THE  TEACHER'S  MISTAKES 152 

XXIV.     JESUS  AS  A  TEACHER 160 

XXV.     EXAMINATION 170 

APPENDIX   .  .  175 


INTRODUCTION 


In  this  book  are  presented  the  notes  of  a  course  of  study 
pursued  by  classes  of  young  men  under  the  leadership  of 
the  writer  for  several  seasons.  The  leaders  of  over  fifty 
other  classes  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States  and  4 
Canada  have  used  these  notes  in  manuscript  or  pamphlet 
form,  and  from  them  now  comes  the  request  for  their 
publication. 

No  claim  for  originality  is  set  up  for  the  contents  of  this 
book.  An  effort  has  been  made  to  assemble  from  a  some- 
what wide  field  of  reading  material  on  the  principles  and 
methods  of  teaching  which  seems  to  be  within  the  range  of 
the  average  teacher  of  Bible  classes  for  men  and  boys. 

These  notes  are  intended  then  for  the  average  teacher 
upon  whom,  under  our  present  economy,  dependence  must 
be  placed  for  the  leadership  of  the  largest  number  of  our 
Bible  classes.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  make  a  sim- 
ple statement  of  the  elementary  principles  of  teaching  in  so 
far  as  they  are  applicable  to  biblical  instruction.  The  writer 
has  assumed  to  be  a  middleman  between  some  of  the  writers 
of  the  extensive  literature  of  the  subject  and  some  of  those 
busy  people  who  are  charged  with  the  important  duty  of 
teaching  biblical  truth  to  our  young  men  and  boys.  For  this 
reason  a  considerable  number  of  Illustrative  Quotations 
have  been  introduced,  and  while  full  references  are  made 
to  the  sources  of  the  material  here  presented  for  the  use  \,; 
of  those  who  can  and  will  take  the  time  to  read  widely  on 
the  subject,  these  quotations  are  offered  for  those  who  have 
not  the  time  to  read  them  in  their  original  setting.  The 
writer  hopes  that  he  will  not  be  regarded  as  reflecting  too 

vH 


INTRODUCTION 

severely  on  his  own  work  in  stating  that  he  regards  these 
quotations  as  the  best  part  of  the  book. 

The  needs  of  teachers  of  Bible  classes  for  young  men 
and  boys  have  been  especially  borne  in  mind.  The  em- 
phasis has  been  naturally  laid  in  books  concerning  religious 
instruction  on  the  characteristics  of  childhood  and  early 
adolescence.  This  is  the  time  of  character  forming,  and 
attention  to  religious  culture  during  this  period  is  in  the 
nature  both  of  wise  construction  and  prevention.  At- 
tempts to  make  up  in  later  life  for  deficiencies  of  education 
at  this  period  must  be  in  the  nature  of  the  case  more  or 
less  pathological  and  corrective.  And  yet  there  must  be 
a  psychology  of  later  adolescence  to  which  a  larger  degree  of 
attention  should  be  given  than  has  been  bestowed  upon  it 
for  the  sake  of  those  who  have  not  had  wise  training  in 
earlier  years.  In  the  selection  of  material  for  this  book, 
this  need  has  been  kept  in  the  foreground. 

One  of  the  crying  necessities  of  the  Church  and  its 
allied  organizations  to-day  is  for  trained  Bible  teachers. 
The  training  has  a  twofold  aspect,  looking  towards  a  larger 
grasp  of  the  subject  and  a  better  method.  Such  training 
should  be  marked  by  an  endeavor  to  furnish  comprehensive, 
historic,  biblical  knowledge,  and  by  an  endeavor  to  inculcate 
approved  methods  of  conveying  this  knowledge  to  others. 
These  two  elements  by  the  plan  here  proposed  are  carried 
along  at  the  same  time  in  a  training  class  of  teachers  who 
devote  a  portion  of  the  lesson  period  to  a  study  of  the 
principles  and  methods  of  teaching  as  outlined  in  these 
pages,  and  another  portion  to  the  study  of  a  common  Bible 
lesson  which  is  to  be  taught  by  them  during  the  ensuing 
week  to  classes  of  which  they  themselves  are  teachers.  By 
this  method  the  members  of  the  training  class  are  not  only 
prepared  to  teach  an  individual  lesson,  but  are  familiarized 
with  the  principles  which  will  help  them  in  the  instruction 
of  any  lesson. 


PAET  ONE 


THE  TEACHER:     HIS  WORK,  QUALIFICATIONS 
AND  PREPARATION 


I.    WHAT  IS  TEACHING? 

Teaching  has  three  principal  objects :  The  communication 
of  knowledge,  the  stimulating  of  the  activity  of  the  student, 
and  the  development  of  character.  As  applied  to  the  instruc- 
tion of  Bible  classes  therefore  teaching  has  for  its  objects  the 
impartation  of  scriptural  truth,  the  awakening  of  the  men- 
tal and  spiritual  activities  of  the  student,  and  the  rounding 
out  of  his  life. 

1.  The  communication  of  knowledge.     This  is  the  pri- 
mary object  of  teaching,  and  whatever  stress  may  be  laid 
on  the  other  two  objects  must  not  be  construed  as  detract- 
ing from  the  importance  of  this  aspect  of  teaching.    Noth- 
ing can  take  the  place  of   the   information    that    comes 
through  the  process  of  teaching.    No  amount  of  enthusiasm 
or  exhortation  can  make  up  for  the  absence  of  the  knowl- 
edge that  must  be  the  foundation  of  all  true  character. 
Especially  is  this  true  of  the  knowledge  that  comes  to  the 
student  through  the  Bible.    This  has  an  inherent  value  that 
does  not  belong  to  any  other  subject  of  instruction.    "Ye 
shall  know  the  truth,"  says  Jesus,  "and  the  truth  shall  make 
you  free/' 

2.  Stimulating  the  activity  of  the  student.     The  com- 
munication of  knowledge,  however,  is  only  a  part  of  the 
teaching  process.    The  imparting  of  items  of  information 
like  the  passing  of  tangible  commodities  from  one  hand  to 
another  does  not  constitute  instruction.    "Teaching  is  not 
telling."    The  self-activities  of  the  student  must  be  aroused. 
The  work  of  learning  is  an  unfolding  process.    There  is 
that  in  the  student  which  awakened  and  quickened  by  the 

1 


2  THE    TEACHING   OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

act  of  teaching  develops  the  truth  from  within.  This  is  the 
meaning  of  such  definitions  as  these : 

"Teaching  is  simply  helping  the  mind  to  perform  its 
function  of  knowing  and  growing." — Laurie. 

"Teaching  is  the  process  by  which  one  mind  from  set 
purpose  produces  the  life-unfolding  process  in  another." — 
Tompkins. 

"Teaching  is  enabling  another  to  re-state  the  truth  in 
the  terms  of  his  own  life." — DuBois. 

"To  teach  is  to  cause  to  learn." — Jacotot. 

"Teaching  is  causing  another  to  know." — Hart. 

One  of  the  best  definitions  of  teaching  is  found  in  the 
prayer  of  the  Psalmist,  "Open  thou  my  understanding." 
In  this  view  of  teaching  the  teacher  is  a  wise  guide  of  the 
active  processes  going  on  within  the  student.  There  is 
much  that  the  student  may  and  does  learn  without  a 
teacher.  Think  of  all  the  knowledge  that  comes  to  one 
without  the  active  co-operation  of  any  teacher.  One  of  the 
most  important  duties  of  the  teacher,  therefore,  is  to  stand 
guard  over  the  activities  of  the  student  and  give  them  wise 
direction.  Dr.  John  Dewey  says,  "I  believe  that  the  teach- 
er's business  is  simply  to  determine  on  the  basis  of  larger 
experience  and  riper  wisdom  how  the  discipline  of  life  shall 
come  to  the  child." 

The  value  of  this  process  of  self-activity  is  very  great. 
Dr.  Thomas  Arnold  of  Eugby  said  that  "the  effort  a  boy 
makes  is  a  hundred  times  more  valuable  to  him  than  the 
knowledge  acquired  as  the  result  of  the  effort."  Dean  Stan- 
ley says  of  the  teaching  method  of  Dr.  Arnold  that  it  "was 
founded  on  the  principle  of  awakening  the  intellect  of  every 
individual  boy."  Two  advantages  will  result  from  this 
method  of  teaching:  First,  the  knowledge  secured  by  it 
will  make  a  more  vivid  impression  and  will  be  longer  re- 
tained in  the  memory.  When  a  boy  was  shown  a  globe 
and  manifested  surprise  that  the  earth  was  round,  he  was 


WHAT    IS    TEACHING?  3 

asked :  "Did  you  not  learn  that  in  school  ?"  "Yes,"  he  re- 
plied, "I  learned  it  but  I  never  knew  it."  Second,  the  pro- 
cess implies  a  mental  and  spiritual  training,  a  development 
of  the  powers  of  the  student,  which  could  not  be  secured 
through  the  mere  communication  of  knowledge. 

The  teaching  of  students  in  the  Bible  contemplates  the 
awakening,  not  only  of  their  intellectual  activities,  but  of 
their  spiritual  activities  as  well,  the  quickening  of  spiritual 
processes,  the  stirring  of  spiritual  faculties,  which  will 
enable  the  student  to  grasp  and  appreciate  spiritual 
truth. 

3.  The  development  of  character.  Teaching  has  for  its 
object,  not  only  the  communication  of  knowledge,  and 
the  stirring  of  the  mental  and  spiritual  activities  of  the 
student,  but  the  development  of  character  as  well.  Teach- 
ing eventuates  in  education.  It  may  be  well,  therefore, 
to  glance  at  a  few  definitions  of  education : 

"The  adaptation  of  a  person,  a  self-conscious  being,  to 
environment  and  the  development  of  capacity  in  a  person 
to  modify  or  control  that  environment." — Butler. 

"Education  has  to  do  with  the  development  of  power, 
or  faculty,  and  aims  at  a  full,  harmonious  realization  of  the 
normal  capacities  of  man." — Sully. 

"Education  is  any  process  or  act  which  results  in  knowl- 
edge or  power  or  skill.  Education  is  a  more  comprehensive 
term  than  teaching,  and  teaching  more  comprehensive  than 
instruction." — White. 

"Education  is  such  a  preparation  of  the  individual  in 
physical,  intellectual  and  moral  capacities  as  will  enable 
him  to  secure  the  highest  enjoyment  from  their  use  here 
and  hereafter." — Roark. 

"Education  cannot  be  better  described  than  by  calling 
it  the  organization  of  acquired  habits  of  conduct  and  ten- 
dencies to  behaviour." — James. 

"Education  it  the  process  of  development  or  drawing  out 


'4      THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

the  faculties  of  the  individual  man  and  training  for  the 
various  functions  of  life." — Wickersham. 

"Education  is  not  the  training  of  the  mind  but  the  train- 
ing of  the  man." — Huntington. 

"The  object  of  education  is  the  realization  of  a  faithful, 
pure,  inviolate  and  hence  holy  life." — Froebel. 

The  significance  of  that  teaching  which  results  in  educa- 
tion is  apparent  in  these  definitions.  Teaching  is  regarded 
as  having  to  do  with  the  life  of  the  student,  and  with 
his  whole  life.  Knowledge  is  communicated,  the  mental 
and  spiritual  faculties  are  awakened,  not  for  the  value  that 
the  knowledge  or  the  awakening  have  in  themselves,  but 
for  their  reflex  influence  on  the  daily  life  of  the  student. 
When  asked  what  Oxford  could  do  for  its  students,  Prof. 
Jowett  replied,  "Oxford  can  teach  an  English  gentleman  to 
be  an  English  gentleman." 

Especially  is  this  true  of  the  teaching  of  the  student  in 
the  Bible.  That  teaching  of  the  Bible  class  which  results 
only  in  intellectual  knowledge  of  the  contents  of  the  Bible, 
or  in  awakening  the  curiosity  of  the  student  concerning  its 
statements,  has  fallen  far  short  of  its  greatest  efficiency. 
"Thy  word  have  I  hidden  in  my  heart"  "Wherewithal  shall 
a  young  man  cleanse  his  way  ?  By  taking  heed  thereto  ac- 
cording to  thy  word."  These  are  the  legitimate  uses  of  the 
knowledge  that  comes  to  the  Bible  student.  The  chief  object 
of  Bible  teaching  is  the  molding  of  character.  Burton  and 
Mathews  have  truly  said  that  "it  cannot  be  too  strongly  or 
too  often  affirmed  that  a  merely  intellectual,  non-religious 
study  of  the  Scriptures  is  not  only  spiritually  unfruitful 
but  unscientific." 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING.f 

•The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.     Gregory,  pp    2-3;   81-94. 
•Teaching  and  Teachers.    Trumbull,  pp.  6-34. 
Talks  to  Teachers.    James,  pp.  29-32. 
Psychology  in  Education.     Roark,  pp.  13-15. 

tSee  appendix. 


WHAT    IS    TEACHING?  5 

Elements  of  Pedagogy.     White,  pp.  133-136. 
Principles  of  Religious  Education.    Butler,  pp.  3-7. 
Principles  and  Ideals  for  the  Sunday-school.     Burton  and 
Matthews,  pp.  3-9. 

My  Educational  Creed.     John  Dewey,  pp.  3-9.     (15  cents.) 
Unconscious  Tuition.    F.  D.  Huntingdon,  pp.  3-4.  (16  cents.) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

What  argument  and  appeal  and  exhortation  wholly  fail  to 
accomplish,  can,  with  some  minds — perhaps  to  a  certain  extent 
with  all  minds — be  accomplished  little  by  little  through  in- 
struction, conveyed  either  in  the  exposition  of  teachings  or  in 
the  study  of  history,  and  especially  of  biography.  And,  in  the 
second  place,  it  must  certainly  be  acknowledged  that  the  most 
solid  results  in  character  cannot  be  obtained  except  upon  a 
broad  foundation  of  knowledge.  Principles  and  Ideals  for 
the  Sunday-school.  Burton  and  Mathews,  p.  7. 

Knowledge  cannot  be  passed  from  mind  to  mind  like  apples 
from  one  basket  to  another,  but  must  in  every  case  be  re-cog- 
nized, re-thought  by  the  receiving  mind.  All  telling,  explain- 
ing, or  other  acts  of  so-called  teaching,  are  useless  except  as 
they  serve  to  excite  and  direct  the  pupil's  voluntary  mental 
powers.  The  teacher  is  a  sympathizing  guide  whose  familiar- 
ity with  the  subjects  to  be  learned  enables  him  to  direct  the 
learner's  efforts,  to  save  him  from  the  waste  of  time  and 
strength,  or  needless  or  insuperable  difficulties,  and  to-  keep 
him  from  mistaking  truth  for  error.  But  no  aid  of  school  or 
teacher  can  change  nature's  modes  in  mind  work,  or  take 
from  the  learner  the  lordly  prerogative  and  need  for  knowing 
for  himself.  The  eye  must  do  its  own  seeing,  the  ear  its  own 
hearing,  and  the  mind  its  own  thinking,  however  much  may 
be  done  to  furnish  objects  of  sight,  sounds  for  the  ear  and 
ideas  for  the  intelligence.  The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching. 
Gregory,  pp.  82-85. 

Religious  nurture,  as  well  as  general  education,  is  develop- 
ment by  self-expression.  It  is  the  unfolding  of  a  divine  germ 
present  from  the  beginning  in  the  child-personality.  It  is 
training  within  religion,  not  merely  preparation  for  it.  Re- 
ligion of  a  Mature  Mind.  Coe,  p.  317. 

The  teaching  of  the  Sunday-school  must  aim  directly  at 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge  of  the  Bible  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil.  But  none  the  less  consciously  must  it  aim  at  the  at- 
tainment of  that  moral  and  religious  result  which  belongs 
to  the  school  because  it  is  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  Christian 
church.  The  central  element  in  the  school  cannot  remain  un- 
affected by  the  ultimate  purpose  for  which  the  institution 
itself  exists.  The  teaching  of  the  Sunday-school  must  seek 
as  its  ultimate  aim  the  conversion  of  the  pupil  and  his  de- 
velopment in  Christian  character.  Principles  and  Ideals  for 
the  Sunday-school.  Burton  and  Mathews,  p.  5. 

Christianity  assumes,  I  'take  it,  that  the  end  of  religious 
education  is  never  mere  knowledge  of  learning,  but  to  bring 


6      THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

the  individual  into  life— the  largest,  richest,  highest  life; 
and  that  life  it  conceives  to  be  the  sharing  of  the  life  of 
God — his  character  and  Joy.  John  thus  reports  Christ  as  say- 
ing: "I  came  that  they  may  have  life,  and  may  have  it  abun- 
dantly." The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Religion.  Pro- 
ceedings of  Religious  Education  Association,  Vol.  I.,  p.  68. 
—Henry  Churchill  King. 

The  primary  principle  of  education  is  the  determination  of 
the  pupil  to  self-activity— the  doing  nothing  for  him  which 
he  is  able  to  do  for  himself.— Sir  William  Hamilton. 

Unfortunately,  education  amongst  us  at  present  consists 
too  much. in  telling,. not  in  training.— Horace  Mann. 


THE   TEACHER'S    QUALIFICATIONS. 


II.    THE  TEACHElR'S  QUALIFICATIONS 

The  teacher  has  a  twofold  relation :  One  to  his  subject, 
and  the  other  to  his  student. 

1.  Relation  to  the  subject.     In  the  teaching  of  Bible 
classes,  the  subject  is  the  truth  of  the  Scriptures,  and  of 
this  the  teacher  must  have  as  complete  and  intimate  knowl- 
edge as  he  can  secure.    Nothing  will  take  the  place  of  such 
knowledge — no  amount  of  enthusiasm,  no  earnestness  of 
appeals,  no  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  teaching. 

He  must  have  a  knowledge  that  extends  far  beyond  the 
scope  of  the  particular  lesson  that  he  is  teaching,  for  that 
lesson  bears  a  relation  to  the  whole  range  of  biblical  truth, 
and  the  significance  of  the  individual  lesson  can  only  be 
determined  by  its  relation  to  the  whole.  Keeping  just  ahead 
of  the  class  will  not  suffice. 

His  knowledge  of  the  subject  must  be  more  than  intel- 
lectual. It  should  be  of  a  kind  that  has  taken  hold  of  his 
own  life.  He  should  have  reached  a  spiritual  apprehension 
of  the  knowledge  that  he  is  trying  to  communicate.  He 
should  have  attained  that  spiritual  discernment  without 
which  Paul  tells  us  that  "the  things  of  the  spirit  of  God 
are  foolishness  to  a  man."  The  teacher's  knowledge  of  his 
subject  should  be  of  the  kind  that  possesses  him.  It  should 
weigh  him  down  as  a  burden  until  it  is  transferred  to  an- 
other. As  one  has  well  pointed  out,  the  teacher  must 
not  only  know  that  which  he  would  teach,  but,  if  he  is 
true  to  his  office,  he  must  also  teach  that  which  he  knows. 
"Woe  is  me/'  said  Paul,  "if  I  preach  not  the  Gospel." 

2.  Relation  to  the  student.    The  teacher  bears  a  relation 


8      THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

not  only  to  his  subject  but  to  his  student  as  well,  and  the 
latter  is  no  less  important  than  the  former.  Many  teachers 
become  so  absorbed  in  their  own  enjoyment  of  the  subject 
that  they  forget  the  bearing  of  the  subject  on  the  student. 
Mr.  H.  Thiselton  Mark  tells  us  that  he  once  knew  of  an  old 
gentleman  concerning  whom  there  was  a  tradition  that  he 
always  closed  his  eyes  when  he  was  teaching,  and  that  he 
became  so  wrapt  up  in  his  subject  that  the  boys  in  his  class 
were  able  to  slip  away  and  leave  him  to  pour  forth  his 
lesson  to  almost  empty  benches.  The  teaching  process 
may  be  represented  by  a  triangle,  one  side  of  which  stands 
for  the  subject,  another  side  for  the  student,  and  the  third, 
connecting  the  other  two,  standing  for  the  teacher.  Too 
much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  direct  connection 
between  teacher  and  student,  which  shall  not  be  broken  by 
the  subject.  That  teacher  had  come  to  a  realization  of 
this  fact,  who,  when  he  was  asked  by  a  friend  if  he  was 
teaching  Latin,  replied,  "No,  I  am  teaching  boys/'  So  of 
the  Bible  class  teacher,  it  might  be  said  that  he  is  not 
teaching  the  Bible  but  boys  or  men — the  Bible.  For  after 
all,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  even  the  Gospel  is  a 
means  to  an  end,  and  while  it  is  the  word  of  life,  it  is  also 
the  channel  through  which  the  influence  of  the  teacher's 
personality  is  to  be  conveyed  to  the  life  of  the  student. 

The  relation  of  the  teacher  to  the  student  has  several 
aspects : 

(1)  The  teacher  must  have  a  knowledge  of  the  student. 
To  use  a  common  expression,  he  must  know  human  nature. 
His  knowledge  should  extend  to  the  physical,  the  mental, 
and  the  spiritual  characteristics  of  each  of  his  students,  to 
the  environment  of  their  daily  lives,  and  the  ambitions  and 
purposes  that  control  their  actions.  Neither  should  this 
knowledge  be  merely  intellectual.  It  should  not  consist 
of  a  curious  observation  of  the  mental  or  spiritual  traits 
of  the  student.  Prof.  James  says  that  he  cannot  too  strong- 


THE    TEACHER'S    QUALIFICATIONS.  9 

ly  agree  with  his  colleague,  Prof.  Munsterberg,  when  he 
says  that  the  teacher's  attitude  toward  the  child  being  con- 
crete and  ethical  is  positively  opposed  to  the  psychological 
observer's  which  is  abstract  and  analytical. 

(2)  The  teacher  must  be  an  example  to  the  student.  He 
must  be  the  bodily  personification  of  the  subject  of  his  >t. 
instruction,  what  Paul  calls  "a  living  epistle."  Carlyle  re- 
plied to  a  young  man  who  wrote  to  him  that  he  expected  to 
be  a  teacher,  and  asked  him  for  his  advice :  "Be  what  you 
would  have  your  pupils  be."  A  high  school  principal  of 
my  acquaintance  made  it  a  rule  in  the  selection  of  teachers 
to  choose  only  those  whose  personal  character  he  wanted 
his  students  to  emulate,  this  rule  being  based  on  the  fact 
that  character  is  chiefly  influenced  by  example  working 
through  unconscious  imitation.  Of  Lord  Chatham  it  was 
said  that  everybody  felt  that  there  was  something  finer  in 
the  man  than  anything  that  he  said.  Emerson  doubtless 
had  some  such  thought  as  this  in  mind  when  he  said,  "What 
you  are  speaks  so  loud  that  I  cannot  hear  what  you  say." 
It  is  especially  true  of  the  Bible  class  teacher  that  he 
should  be  an  embodiment  of  his  own  teaching,  for,  as  we 
have  seen,  his  chief  object  in  teaching  should  be  the  de- 
velopment of  the  character  of  his  students,  and  nothing  so 
vitiates  the  force  of  his  instruction  as  a  recognition,  which 
is  generally  quick  and  keen  on  the  part  of  the  student,  of 
elements  in  the  life  of  the  teacher  that  do  not  conform 
to  the  spirit  of  his  teaching.  Nothing  will  so  conduce  to 
this  end  as  the  cultivation  of  a  Christ-like  character  by 
the  teacher.  He  should  try  to  make  it  possible  for  the  stu- 
dent to  look  through  him  to  Christ.  Not  in  such  a  supreme 
degree  can  the  teacher  say,  as  Jesus  said,  "Follow  me,"  but 
this  should  be  his  objective.  Paul  said,  "For  though  ye 
should  have  ten  thousand  tutors  in  Christ,  yet  have  ye  not 
many  fathers:  for  in  Christ  Jesus  I  begat  ye  through  the 
Gospel.  I  beseech  you,  therefore,  be  ye  imitators  of  me." 


10  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

(I  Cor.  4:15-16) ;  and  again,  "Be  ye  imitators  of  me,  even 
as  I  also  am  of  Christ."  (I  Cor.  11 :1.) 

(3)  The  teacher  must  be  a  friend  of  the  student.    This 
belongs  to  the  sphere  of  the  "Teacher's  Other  Work  than 
Teaching."    To  be  a  true  friend  of  the  student  the  teacher 
must  enter  into  the  life  of  the  student  outside  of  the  class 
session.     He  will  need  to  know  the  temptations  to  which 
the  student  is  subjected  in  every-day  life,  the  kind  of 
home  in  which  he  lives,  the  companions  with  whom  he  fel- 
lowships, the  ambitions  and  motives  that  master  him. 

(4)  The  teacher  must  be  a  teacher.    It  would  be  well  if 
he  were  a  natural  teacher,  one  who,  even  in  the  absence  of  a 
knowledge  of  the  formal  principles  of  teaching,  has  the 
native  ability  to  inculcate  knowledge,  and  inspire  to  a  search 
for  the  truth.     If  he  have  such  native  ability,  none  the 
less  he  needs  to  have  the  knowledge  of  the  principles  of 
teaching  to  which  reference  will  be  made  later.    If  he  have 
it  not,  there  is  all  the  greater  reason  why  he  should  apply 
himself   to   the   acquirement   of   those   principles   which, 
whether  consciously  or  unconsciously  used,  go  to  make  suc- 
cessful teaching. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 
*The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.     Gregory,  pp.  16-27. 
^Principles  and  Ideals  for  the  Sunday-school.     Burton  and 
Mathews,  pp.   10-12,  22-24,  98-102. 
How  to  Teach  the  Bible.    Gregory,  pp.  24-29. 
Unconscious  Tuition.     Huntington,  entire  essay. 
Teaching  and  Teachers.    Trumbull,  Part  II. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

What  the  teacher  knows  he  must  teach.  There  is  an  Inborn 
need  and  desire  in  man  for  expression.  It  is  the  instinctive 
impulse  to  tell  in  some  way,  by  word  or  action,  our  thoughts 
and  emotions  so  soon  as  they  become  vivid  and  intense 
enough.  It  is  the  teaching  passion.  "While  I  was  musing  the 
fire  burned  ;  then  spake  I  with  my  tongue."  Other  motives 
and  impulses  may  mingle  and  aid,  but  this  Is  primary  and 
fundamental.  The  hot  heart — hot  with  visions  and  discov- 
ered truth — forces  speech,  or  teaching  which  is  better  than 
speech.  The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.  Gregory,  pp.  16-17. 


THE    TEACHER'S   QUALIFICATIONS.  H 

The  teacher  must  master  the  lesson  material  until  it  pos- 
sesses him,  until  he  is  his  message  and,  in  some  measure,  he 
can  say  as  our  Master,  who  is  the  Supreme  Teacher,  "I  am 
the  Truth."  The  Bible  Record.  Wieand. 

Now  the  natural  man  receiveth  not  the  things  of  the  Spirit 
of  God,  for  they  are  foolishness  unto  him;  and  he  cannot 
know  them  because  they  are  spiritually  judged.  But  he  that 
is  spiritual  judgeth  all  things,  and  he  himself  is  judged  of 
no  man.  For  who  hath  known  the  mind  of  the  Lord  that 
he  should  instruct  him?  But  we  have  the  mind  of  Christ. 
7.  Cor.  3:14-16. 

It  is  axiomatic  that  the  teacher  who  gains  no  spiritual  help 
from  his  study  will  impart  none  in  his  teaching.  If  his 
method  of  study  is  such  that  it  brings  him  no  uplift  or 
strength,  it  can  hardly  have  a  different  effect  upon  his  pupil. 
Principles  and  Ideals  for  the  Sunday-school.  Burton  and  Mat- 
hews,  p.  22. 

A  teacher's  study  of  his  every  scholar  is  quite  as  important 
as  his  study  of  his  every  lesson.  Teaching  and  Teachers. 
Trumbull,  p.  49. 

There  is  vastly  more  2eal  and  enthusiasm  among  religious 
teachers  for  Bible  study  than  for  the  study  of  human  life, 
for  which  the  Bible  was  given.  Biblical  Material  Adapted. 
George  E.  Dawson,  in  Proceedings  Religious  Education  Asso- 
ciation, Vol.  II.,  p.  74. 

The  old-fashioned  schoolmaster  was  supposed  to  need  Just 
two  qualifications — knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  ability  to 
maintain  discipline.  Everything  and  everybody  was  taught 
in  the  same  way,  without  regard  to  age.  To-day  a  competent 
teacher  must  add  at  least  one  other  qualification;  he  must 
understand  the  stage  of  the  pupil's  growth  and  adjust  meth- 
ods of  instruction  thereto.  The  educational  process  is  to  be 
carried  on  from  the  standpoint  of  neither  the  teacher  nor  the 
subject,  but  from  that  of  the  child.  The  inner  side  of  the 
pupil's  life,  his  spontaneous  interests,  his  characteristic  ways 
of  getting  at  things,  constitute  laws  for  the  educational  proc- 
ess. The  Work  of  a  Boys'  Department.  George  Albert  Coe, 
p.  35. 

In  most  situations — in  none  more  than  a  school — what  a 
man  is  tells  for  vastly  more  than  what  he  says.  Nay,  he  may 
say  nothing,  and  there  shall  be  an  indescribable  inspiration 
in  his  simple  presence.  Unconscious  Tuition.  Huntinp- 
ton,  p.  38. 

A  teacher's  spirit,  a  teacher's  character,  a  teacher's  atmo- 
sphere, and  a  teacher's  life  impress  and  influence  a  pupil  quite 
as  much  as  a  teacher's  words.  Teaching  and  Teachers.  Trum- 
bull, p.  32. 

The  Sunday-school  teacher  is  not  simply  a  teacher.  His  re- 
ligious influence  on  the  pupil  ought  not  to  be  limited,  cannot 
be  limited,  to  that  which  he  brings  to  bear  through  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  Bible  which  he  imparts,  or  which  the  pupil  under 
his  instruction  gains.  He  is,  or  ought  to  be,  the  friend  and 


12  THE   TEACHING   OP   BIBLE   CLASSES 

pastor  of  the  pupil  as  well  as  his  instructor.    Principles  and 
Ideals  for  the  Sunday-school.    Burton  and  Mathews,  p.  98. 

A  teacher  inevitably  influences  more  by  what  he  is  seven 
days  in  the  week,  than  by  what  he  says  one  day  in  the  week. 
Teaching  and  Teachers.  Trumbull,  p.  272. 


THE   TEACHER'S   PREPARATION  13 


III.  THE  TEACHER'S  PREPARATION 

The  teacher's  preparation  for  his  work  should  extend 
both  to  the  matter  and  the  manner,  to  the  substance  and  the 
method  of  his  teaching. 

1.  The  teacher's  preparation  in  the  subject-matter  of  his 
teaching  may  be  regarded  in  its  general  and  in  its  special 
aspects : 

(1)  The  teacher's  general  preparation  extends  over  his 
whole  life.    This  is  what  Lyman  Beecher  intended  to  con- 
vey when  he  replied  to  the  question,  how  long  it  took  him 
to  prepare  a  certain  sermon,  "Twenty  years."    The  earnest 
teacher  will  make  all  sources  of  culture  and  discipline  con- 
tribute to  his  efficiency  as  a  teacher.  Here  all  the  knowledge 
that  he  secures  from  whatever  source,  whether  from  litera- 
ture, the  sphere  of  his  daily  calling,  or  his  association  with 
men,  will  come  into  play,  and  the  accumulation  of  years 
will  go  into  the  efficient  teaching  of  a  single  lesson.     He 
will  seek  a  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  as  a  whole,  and  to 
that  end  he  will  not  be  satisfied  with  a  study  of  the  more 
or  less  fragmentary  lessons  of  the  series  of  studies  which 
he  may  be  conducting,  but  will  engage  for  himself  if  neces- 
sary in  a  systematic  and  thorough  course  of  biblical  study, 
even  though  such  a  course  may  require  years  for  its  com- 
pletion. 

(2)  The  teacher  will  give  special  preparation  to  each 
recurring  lesson.    Even  though  it  may  be  familiar  ground 
over  which  he  is  expected  to  lead  his  class,  he  will  familiar- 
ize himself  afresh  with  it,  remembering  that  the  essential 
element  in  teaching  is  not  the  perfunctory  communication 


14  THE    TEACHING    OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

of  knowledge  but  the  transmission  of  the  message  of  the 
lesson  surcharged  with  the  teacher's  own  personality.  The 
biographer  of  Phillips  Brooks  tells  us  that  Dr.  May,  one 
of  his  instructors  in  theology,  was  a  saintly  man,  whose 
conscience  did  not  extend  into  the  sphere  of  scholarship ;  it 
did  not  invade  the  province  of  church  history.  His  sense 
of  fidelity  as  a  teacher  was  not  disturbed  by  his  cutting 
the  leaves  of  a  new  text-book  in  the  very  presence  of  the 
class  who  were  reciting  from  it.  When  a  young  teacher 
asked  President  Garfield,  then  a  professor  in  Hiram  Col- 
lege, the  secret  of  his  power,  he  said,  "See  to  it  that  you 
do  not  feed  your  pupils  on  cold  victuals."  The  necessity  of 
making  a  fresh  impression  in  order  to  the  greatest  effect 
on  the  student,  the  limitations  of  the  lesson  period  calling 
for  the  economizing  of  time,  and  the  presentation  of  the 
most  salient  suggestions  of  the  lesson,  the  nature  of  the 
subject-matter,  having  to  do  with  the  supremest  interests  of 
the  student's  life — all  these  and  other  considerations  call  for 
the  most  thorough  and  renewed  preparation  of  each  lesson 
by  the  teacher. 

2.  The  value  of  the  teacher's  preparation  in  the  method 
of  his  teaching  should  not  be  underestimated,  least  of  all 
by  the  teacher.  President  Eliot  in  his  inaugural  address 
in  1870  said,  "The  actual  problem  to  be  solved  is  not  what 
to  teach  but  how  to  teach."  The  effect  of  the  best  subject- 
matter  is  oftentimes  lost  for  want  of  a  proper  method  of 
presentation.  Emphasis  on  method  need  not  be  construed 
into  a  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  necessity  of  the  very  best 
personality  in  the  teacher.  Dr.  White  in  his  Elements 
of  Pedagogy  has  truly  said  that  "the  more  scientific  a 
system  of  teaching  may  be  the  more  essential  is  the  teacher." 
On  the  other  hand,  doubtless  many  a  teacher  of  masterful 
personality  has  succeeded  in  spite  of  an  objectionable  meth- 
od. These  considerations,  however,  do  not  lessen  the  im- 
portance of  method  in  teaching. 


THE    TEACHER'S    PREPARATION  15 

The  teacher's  preparation  in  method  may  be  of  two 
kinds: 

(1)  There  are  what  are  called  natural  teachers.    These 
men  have  the  preparation  of  a  native  endowment.    A  com- 
mon illustration  of  such  endowment  is  found  in  persons 
who  can  play  the  piano  by  ear,  although  they  may  be  unable 
to  read  a  note  of  music.     Paul  speaks  of  those  who  are 
"apt  to  teach,"  and  says  that  bishops  should  have  that 
qualification. 

(2)  There  is  also  a  preparation  in  acquired  methods  of 
teaching.    It  is  possible  to  apply  the  elementary  principles 
of  pedagogy,  or  the  science  of  teaching,  to  biblical  instruc- 
tion and  secure  more  effective  teaching  of  the  Bible.    We 
have  a  recognized  religious  pedagogy.    One  of  the  objects  of 
this  study  is  to  familiarize  ourselves  with  the  elementary 
principles  and  methods  of  teaching  which  are  observed  in 
so-called  secular  instruction.    It  should  be  borne  in  mind  as 
a  fundamental  proposition  that  the  mental  faculties  em- 
ployed in  the  reception  of  spiritual  truth  are  the  same  as 
those  employed  in  the  reception  of  any  other  knowledge. 
The  teacher  of  Sunday  has  to  do  with  the  same  minds  as  the 
teacher  of  Monday.     It  is  true  that  there  are  added  ele- 
ments in  the  reception  of  the  spiritual  truth  that  are  not  at 
work  in  the  impartation  of  intellectual  knowledge,  but  in  so 
far  as  the  mental  powers  are  engaged  in  the  reception  of 
spiritual  truth,  they  are  governed  by  the  same  laws  and 
subject  to  the  same  condition  as  in  the  reception  of  any 
other  form  of  truth. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  study  of  the  best 
methods  of  teaching  will  be  either  unnecessary  or  detri- 
mental to  him  who  has  native  ability  as  a  teacher.  If  by 
reason  of  native  capacity  a  teacher  has  fallen  into  right 
methods  of  teaching,  an  acquired  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples which  he  has  been  unconsciously  practising  could 
hardly  make  him  less  effective  as  a  teacher.  If  he  has 


16  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE    CLASSES 

proved  efficient  in  spite  of  his  lack  of  formal  knowledge 
of  the  fundamental  laws  of  teaching,  how  much  more  effi- 
cient should  he  prove  to  be  with  that  knowledge.  It  is  only 
the  teacher  who  places  too  great  reliance  on  the  mere  knowl- 
edge of  correct  methods  of  teaching  who  is  injured  thereby. 
It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  science  and  art 
of  teaching.  In  science  "we  know  that  we  may  know."  In 
art,  "we  know  that  we  may  produce/'  The  science  of  teach- 
ing has  to  do  with  the  formulated  principles  of  teaching. 
The  art  of  teaching  has  to  do  with  the  application  and  use 
of  those  principles  in  the  actual  instruction  of  students.  A 
teacher  may  know  the  art  of  teaching  without  the  science. 
The  ideal  teacher  will  have  both.  As  James  says,  "Sciences 
never  generate  arts  directly  out  of  themselves.  The  science 
of  logic  never  made  a  man  reason  rightly  and  the  science 
of  ethics  never  made  a  man  behave  rightly.  The  most  such 
sciences  can  do  is  to  help  us  to  catch  ourselves  up  and 
check  ourselves  if  we  start  to  reason  or  behave  wrongly; 
and  to  criticise  ourselves  more  articulately  after  we  have 
made  mistakes." 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

The  Elements  of  Pedagogy.    White,  pp.  210-215. 
•Talks  to  Teachers.    James,  pp.  3-12. 
The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.    Gregory,  pp.  7-12. 
•Teaching  and  Teachers.    Trumbull,  pp.  105-115. 
Principles  of  Religious  Education.    Butler,  pp.  15-16. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

When  teaching  involves  the  direction  of  book  study  by 
pupils  and  testing  of  results,  the  teachers'  daily  preparation 
must  determine  the  proper  assignment  of  lessons — a  most  im- 
portant duty.  Much  of  the  aimless  study  of  pupils  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  ends  to  be  reached  have  not  been  clearly  set 
before  the  mind.  The  knowing  of  what  to  do  is  no  small 
part  of.  the  doing  of  it,  and  it  is  not  much  too  strong  to  say 
that  a  lesson  properly  assigned  is  half  mastered.  The  writer 
has  sometimes  gone  so  far  as  to  claim  that  a  very  good  esti- 
mate of  a  teacher's  skill  can  be  based  on  the  manner  in  which 
he  assigns  lessons  or  tasks.  The  Elements  of  Pedagogy. 
White,  p.  214. 


THE    TEACHER'S    PREPARATION  1? 

The  Sunday-school  must,  first  of  all,  understand  fully  the 
organization,  aims,  and  methods  of  the  public  schools;  for 
It  is  their  ally.  It  must  take  into  consideration  the  progress 
of  the  instruction  there  given  in  secular  subjects,  and  must 
correlate  its  own  religious  instruction  with  this.  It  must 
study  facts  of  child-life  and  development,  and  it  must  base 
its  methods  upon  the  actual  needs  and  capacities  of  child- 
hood. It  must  organize  its  work  economically  and  scien- 
tifically, and  it  must  demand  of  its  teachers  special  and  con- 
tinuous work.  "Religious  Instruction  and  Education";  Nich- 
olas Murray  Butler  in  Principles  of  Religious  Education,  pp. 
15-16. 

Whereas,  with  few  exceptions,  there  had  been  a  large 
amount  of  teaching,  but  very  little  thinking  about  it,  the 
nineteenth  century  laid  new  emphasis  on  the  method  of 
teaching.  Some  of  the  finest  ideas  which  have  ever  entered 
into  the  human  mind  have  failed  of  their  influence,  because 
the  men  that  had  them  did  not  know  how  to  present  them.  On 
the  other  hand,  ideas  that  have  greatly  influenced  men  have 
owed  much  to  the  form  in  which  they  were  expressed.  The 
vast  influence  of  the  Bible  writers,  for  example,  does  not  re- 
side merely  in  what  they  say,  but  in  the  manner  and  spirit 
in  which  they  say  it.  The  Teacher  and  the  Child.  Mark,  p.  58. 

We  do  not  for  a  moment  believe  that  science  will  make  an 
artist.  While  we  contend  that  the  leading  laws  of  objective 
and  subjective  phenomena  must  be  understood  by  him,  we  by 
no  means  contend  the  knowledge  of  such  laws  will  serve  in 
place  of  natural  perception.  Not  only  the  poet,  but  also  the 
artist  of  every  type,  is  born,  not  made.  What  we  assert  is, 
that  innate  faculty  alone  will  not  suffice;  but  must  have  the 
aid  of  organized  knowledge.  Intuition  will  do  much,  but  it 
will  not  do  all.  Only  when  Genius  is  married  to  Science  can 
the  highest  results  be  produced.  The  success  of  eve'ry  ap- 
pliance depends  mainly  upon  the  intelligence  with  which  it  is 
used.  It  is  a  trite  remark,  that,  having  the  choicest  of  tools, 
an  unskillful  artisan  will  botch  his  work;  and  bad  teachers 
will  fail  even  with  the  best  methods.  Education.  Spencer, 
pp.  66,  102. 

A  teacher  may  work  in  conformity  with  these  laws  without 
knowing  them,  gaining  right  ideas  of  procedure  from  experi- 
ence; but  the  better  way  is  to  study  the  laws  governing  the 
teaching  process,  work  in  accordance  with  them,  and  thus 
reach  the  desired  result  without  making  the  many  mistakes 
which  otherwise  would  surely  be  made.  The  Sunday-school 
Teachers'  Normal  Course.  Pease,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  149-150. 

Psychology  is  a  science,  and  teaching  is  an  art;  and  sciences 
never  generate  arts  directly  out  of  themselves.  An  interme- 
diary inventive  mind  must  make  the  application,  by  using 
its  originality.  Talks  to  Teachers.  James,  pp.  7-8. 


18  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 


IV.    THE   CONNECTION   OF  BODY,   MIND   AND 
SPIRIT 

1.  Unity  of  man.  The  treatment  of  man  as  body,  mind 
and  spirit  is  apt  to  be  misleading.  We  are  prone  to  think 
of  these  as  separate  entities,  with  different  agencies  for  the 
training  of  each — the  gymnasium  for  the  body,  the  school 
for  the  mind,  the  church  for  the  spirit.  On  the  other 
hand,  great  emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  the  unity  of  man. 
Instead  of  saying,  as  one  did,  "I  have  a  body,  I  have  a 
mind,  I  am  a  spirit,"  we  should  say,  "I  am  a  man — body, 
mind  and  spirit."  These  three  must  go  together  in  any 
comprehensive  plan  of  religious  education.  So  the  gymnas- 
ium has  come  to  recognize  the  relation  of  the  body  to  mind 
and  spirit;  the  school  to  recognize  the  relation  of  mind  to 
body  and  spirit;  and  the  church  to  recognize  the  relation  of 
spirit  to  body  and  mind.  The  attempt  to  develop  any 
one  of  these  departments  of  manhood  without  relation  to 
the  others  will  result  unfortunately.  Joseph  Cook  once 
said,  "Educate  a  man's  body  alone  and  you  have  a  brute; 
educate  his  mind  alone  and  you  have  a  sceptic  (and  we 
might  add,  educate  his  spirit  alone  and  you  have  a  bigot) ; 
educate  his  body  and  his  mind  (and  his  spirit)  and  you 
have  the  noblest  work  of  God,  a  man."  The  triangle,  which 
has  come  to  be  the  symbol  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  with  one  side  standing  for  body,  another  for 
mind,  and  the  third,  connecting  the  other  two,  for  spirit, 
and  the  whole  constituting  a  unit,  is  a  true  representation 
of  the  intimate  relationship  existing  among  these  three 
departments  of  manhood.  As  Dr.  Coe  says,  it  is  "a  symbol 


CONNECTION    OF    BODY,    MIND    AND    SPIRIT       19 

of  symmetry.  It  stands  for  the  best  that  was  in  the  Greek 
ideal,  but  raised  to  a  higher  potency  through  Christ."  So 
we  emphasize  the  saving  of  the  entire  life.  It  is  not  simply 
the  soul  that  is  to  be  developed  and  prepared  for  useful- 
living  here  and  hereafter,  but  it  is  the  entire  man — body 
mind  and  spirit.  Jesus  said  (Matthew  16:27  K.  V.) 
"Whosoever  would  save  his  life  shall  lose  it,  and  whosoever 
shall  lose  his  life  for  my  sake  shall  find  it;  for  what  shall 
a  man  be  profited  if  he  shall  gain  the  whole  world  and  for- 
feit his  life,  or  what  shall  a  man  give  in  exchange  for  his 
lifer 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  study  to  emphasize  the  close 
relationship  of  these  three  departments  of  manhood — body, 
mind  and  spirit.  For  a  scientific  description  of  the  con- 
nection between  body  and  mind,  which  has  been  traced  with 
reasonable  clearness,  the  student  is  referred  to  the  books 
mentioned  below,  or  to  almost  any  textbook  of  psychology. 
We  shall  make  no  attempt  in  this  place  to  follow  the 
workings  of  the  cerebro-spinal  system,  but  shall  simply  note 
the  most  evident  effects  of  the  body  on  the  mind  and  spirit 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  mind  and  spirit  on  the  body 
on  the  other,  as  an  indication  of  their  close  relationship. 

2.  Effects  of  body  on  mind  and  spirit.  These  are  of 
such  a  common  character,  and  are  so  apparent  to  all,  as  to 
call,  in  most  cases,  for  no  elaboration : 

Indigestion  causing  depression  of  mind. 

Bodily  fatigue  producing  mental  inaction. 

Certain  physical  diseases  causing  melancholia. 

An  over-wrought  nervous  system  resulting  in  peevish 
temper. 

A  hearty  meal  superinducing  drowsiness. 

Stimulants  taken  into  the  body  exciting  the  mind. 

Narcotics  taken  into  the  body  dulling  the  mind. 

"Mental  action/'  says  Dr.  Roark,  "may  be  wholly  sus- 
pended by  reducing  the  supply  of  blood  to  the  brain 


20  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

through  a  pressure  upon  the  arteries  of  the  neck  far  short 
of  that  necessary  to  produce  death.  A  clot  of  blood  no 
larger  than  a  wheat  grain,  or  a  minute  splinter  of  bone  from 
the  skull  pressing  upon  the  surface  of  the  brain,  is  sufficient 
to  change  a  man  of  culture  into  an  ignoramus,  or  one  of 
eminent  character  into  a  moral  wreck.  Every  surgeon  can 
give  instances  of  a  change  in  mental  or  moral  character  as 
the  result  of  accidents  to  the  head.  Epilepsy  and  congenital 
idiocy  may  be  cured  in  children  by  trepanning."  Recently 
an  incorrigible  youth  was  brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court 
in  a  western  state  and  his  parents  asked  that  he  be  sent 
to  a  reform  school.  A  physician  made  an  examination  and 
discovered  a  depression  in  the  lad's  skull,  and  his  parents 
then  remembered  that  he  had  had  a  fall  several  years  be- 
fore. Three  pieces  of  skull  were  removed  and  there  was 
found  a  hard  growth  that  was  pressing  upon  the  brain. 
When  this  was  removed  the  boy's  evil  disposition  seemed 
to  leave  him,  he  was  obedient  to  his  parents  and,  at  his  own 
request,  was  sent  to  school.  Annie  Payson  Call,  in  "Power 
through  Repose,"  says  that  the  best  and  surest  way  to  gov- 
ern one's  temper  is  to  lower  the  voice,  and  calls  attention  to 
the  fact  that  when  two  people  are  in  an  argument,  as  the 
excitement  increases  the  voices  rise.  "The  fate  of  nations," 
a  witty  Frenchman  once  said,  "is  often  determined  by  the 
digestion  or  indigestion  of  a  prime  minister."  Not  less 
is  it  true  that  the  spiritual  nature  is  affected  by  bodily 
weakness  or  pain.  The  great  Dr.  Alexander  was  once  asked 
if  he  had  a  full  assurance  of  faith.  He  replied,  "Yes,  except 
when  the  wind  is  in  the  east."  Other  things  being  equal 
the  man  of  the  most  helpful  spirituality  will  be  the  one  who 
enjoys  the  best  health. 

3.  Effect  of  mind  and  spirit  on  body.  Some  familiar 
illustrations  of  the  effect  of  mind  and  spirit  on  body,  to 
which  the  student  may  add  from  his  own  experience,  are 
as  follows : 


CONNECTION    OF    BODY,   MIND   AND    SPIRIT       21 

Extreme  pleasure  or  pain  causing  loss  of  appetite. 

Conversely,  joy  and  hope  promoting  health  and  vigor. 

Mental  worry  causing  physical  weakness. 

The  mention  of  fruit  causing  the  mouth  to  water. 

Mental  fatigue  producing  physical  weariness. 

Great  fear  turning  the  hair  white. 

A  sudden  fright  paralyzing  the  heart  or  brain. 

Anger  producing  redness  or  pallor. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  the  various 
emotions  have  characteristic  bodily  expressions.  For  exam- 
ple, anger  is  manifested  by  tense  muscles  and  clinched  fists ; 
mental  excitement  by  trembling  limbs. 

Spencer  calls  our  attention  to  the  fact  that  "digestion 
of  the  food,  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  through  these, 
all  other  organic  processes,  are  profoundly  affected  by  cere- 
bral excitement." 

Annie  Payson  Call  says  that  she  has  made  nurses  practise 
lifting  while  impressing  the  fact  forcibly  upon  them  by 
repetition  before  lifting  and  during  the  process  of  raising 
the  body  and  lowering  it,  that  they  must  use  entirely  the 
muscles  of  the  legs.  This  use  of  the  brain  in  the  guidance 
of  the  body  has  made  the  work  of  lifting  the  burden  one 
of  comparative  ease.  Dr.  Gulick,  in  his  "Studies  of  Ado- 
lescent Boyhood,"  states  that  students  have  a  stronger  grasp 
of  the  hand  than  manual  laborers  because  the  former  use 
the  nerve  centres,  which  supply  the  stimulus  to  the  muscles 
which  operate  the  hand,  the  most. 

This  connection  undoubtedly  accounts  for  frequent  mind 
and  faith  cures.  As  on  the  one  hand  actual  illnesses  may 
be  produced  in  people  by  the  frequent  repetition  of  the 
statement  by  different  persons  to  them  that  they  do  not 
look  well,  so  on  the  other  hand,  actual  illnesses  may  be  and 
oftentimes  are  subdued  and  overcome  by  causing  the  mind 
to  believe  that  no  disease  exists.  A  study  of  such  mind 
and  faith  cures  as  "Faith  Healing,  Christian  Science  and 


22  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

Kindred  Phenomena"  by  Dr.  James  M.  Buckley  would 
serve  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  this  influence  of  the 
mind  and  spirit  on  the  body.  Hypnotism  is  another  mani- 
festation of  this  influence. 

4.  Applications  to  Bible  teaching.  (1)  The  religious 
teacher  should  give  direct  attention  to  the  development 
of  the  physical  powers  of  his  students.  The  applications  of 
biblical  truth  should  be  brought  to  bear  directly  upon  the 
habits  of  the  body.  "Wherewithal  shall  a  young  man 
cleanse  his  way  ?  By  taking  heed  thereto  according  to  thy 
word."  (Psalm  119:9.)  As  the  wrong  uses  of  the  body 
will  have  an  unfavorable  effect  upon  the  spiritual  life, 
such  wrong  uses  should  be  guarded  against  with  rigorous 
care.  As  Spencer  says,  "The  fact  is  that  all  breaches  of  the 
laws  of  health  are  physical  sins"  Purity  of  thought  results 
in  purity  of  life.  (Matthew  5 :28 ;  Philippians  4 :8.)  Clean- 
liness is  not  only  next  to  godliness  but  is  a  form  of  godli- 
ness. "Get  a  boy,"  says  Dr.  Dawson,  "to  realize  that  a 
certain  course  of  action  makes  his  muscles  flabby,  puts  it 
out  of  his  power  to  ever  be  a  strong,  vigorous  man,  and 
that  boy  is  going  to  think  twice  before  he  does  that  thing. 
Make  a  boy  understand  that  bad  habits  are  going  to  destroy 
his  good  health,  impair  his  eyesight,  or  his  hearing,  destroy 
in  a  very  real  and  tangible  sense  his  soul,  and  he  is  going  to 
think  twice  before  he  indulges  in  them." 

(2)  Physical  activity  on  the  part  of  younger  students 
should  be  directed  rather  than  repressed.    An  outlet  for  this 
activity  will  be  found  in  the  use  of  the  hands,  as  in  keep- 
ing notes  of  and  illustrating  the  lesson,  and  in  the  drawing 
or  making  of  maps. 

(3)  The  physical  conditions  of  the  classroom  should  be 
considered,  and  where  necessary,  improved:  its  seating, 
ventilation,  heating,  etc. 

(4)  The  members  of  men's  Bible  classes  which  meet  in 
the  evening  after  the  fatiguing  labors  of  the  day,  or  on  Sun- 


CONNECTION   OF   BODY,    MIND   AND    SPIRIT      23 

day  after  the  toil  of  the  week,  should  have  special  con- 
sideration, and  the  work  of  the  classroom  and  the  as- 
signment of  home  work  so  adjusted  as  to  add  as  little  as 
possible  to  the  physical  draft  upon  the  student.  For  such 
classes  the  work  of  the  classroom  should  be  varied  as  much 
as  possible.  One  of  the  ways  of  effecting  this  variety  is  to 
pass  occasionally  from  the  consideration  of  abstract  themes 
to  concrete  subjects,  or  to  such  exercises  as  drawing. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

*The  Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology.    Sully,  pp.  27-43. 

The  Story  of  the  Mind.    Baldwin,  pp.  101-122.     (40  cents.) 

Psychology  and  Education.     Roark,  pp.  21-24. 

Elements  of  Pedagogy.    White,  pp.  31-33. 

The  Spiritual  Life.    Coe,  pp.  71-89. 

The  Work  of  a  Boys'  Department.  Coe,  pp.  30-31.  (20 
cents.) 

The  Physical  Boy.  Luther  H.  Gulick,  "Association  Boys," 
April,  1902,  pp.  38-47.  ($1.00  per  annum.) 

Power  Through  Repose.    Annie  Payson  Call.     ($1.00.) 

The  Physical  Basis  of  Character  in  Man's  Value  to  Society. 
Newell  Dwight  Hillis.  ($1.25.) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

We  begin  with  the  unity  of  the  educational  process.  The 
Greeks,  taking  symmetry  as  an  ideal,  trained  mind  and  body 
co-ordinately;  but  Christian  asceticism  neglected  the  body, 
holding  it  to  be  a  clog  upon  the  soul.  Moreover,  mediaeval 
thought,  at  least  in  some  of  its  currents,  separated  spiritual 
culture  from  general  mental  culture,  as  though  the  mind  and 
the  soul  were  two  separate  things.  The  influence  of  these 
ideas  is  still  visible  throughout  the  Christian  world.  For  the 
most  part,  religion  takes  no  account  of  the  physical  powers, 
and  frequently  but  small  account  of  the  intellectual,  aesthetic 
and  even  the  moral  faculties.  But  it  is  a  maxim  of  modern 
education  that  the  individual  is  to  be  educated  as  a  unit. 
The  Work  of  a  Boys'  Department.  Coe,  p.  30. 

Moreover,  it  is  of  peculiar  moment  to  the  religious  teacher 
to  take  account  of  the  unity  of  man.  Because  he  ought  to 
face  the  exact  facts  and  to  know  and  to  obey  the  laws  of  his 
divinely  given  nature,  the  religious  teacher  least  of  all  can 
afford  to  ignore  either  the  physical  or  psychical  conditions  in- 
volved in  the  unity  of  human  nature.  On  the  physical  side 
he  should  not  forget,  for  example,  the  effects  of  fatigue — 
that  surplus  nervous  energy  is  the  chief  physical  condition  of 
self-control — nor  the  close  connection  of  the  muscular  activity 
and  will,  nor  the  physical  basis  of  habit.  On  the  psychical 


24  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

side,  the  religious  teacher  needs  to  consider  the  possible  help- 
ing or  hindering  influence  of  intellectual  and  emotional  condi- 
tions. The  moral  dangers  of  intellectual  vagueness  and  of 
strained  and  sham  emotions  may  be  taken  as  illustrations. 
"The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Religion."  Henry  Churchill 
King,  in  Proceedings  of  the  Religious  Education  Association, 
Vol.  I,  p.  68. 

There  is  necessarily  a  general  harmony  between  the  soul 
and  the  body.  They  not  only  develop  together,  though  not 
always  in  the  same  ratio,  but  their  activity  and  energy  gen- 
erally vary  with  each  other.  When  the  vital  energies  of  the  body 
are  lowered  by  drowsiness,  languor  and  disease  the  psychi- 
cal activities  are  depressed.  When  the  soul  is  energized  by 
strong  and  buoyant  emotions  and  desires,  the  bodily  powers 
respond  to  the  quickening  influence.  Elements  of  Pedagogy. 
White,  p.  33. 

The  cerebro-spinal  system  Is  sometimes  compared  to  a  tele- 
graphic system,  of  which  the  brain  is  the  great  central  office; 
the  spinal  chord  and  ganglia,  less  important  central  offices; 
the  nerves  the  connecting  lines,  the  special  sense  organs 
the  points  from  which  messages  are  sent  in,  and  the 
muscles  the  individuals  to  whom  messages  are  sent.  The 
similarity  may  be  illustrated  by  tracing  a  sensation  and  its 
results.  If  you  touch  a  hot  stove,  the  little  nerve  buds  in 
your  finger  are  excited;  the  afferent  nerves  carry  the  news 
of  the  accident  to  the  brain,  which  sends  out  along  the  ef- 
ferent nerves  a  sharp  command  to  the  muscles  of  the  arm  to 
contract,  and  withdraw  the  finger.  Psychology  in  Education. 
Roark,  p.  24. 

Dr.  Josiah  Strong,  in  Religious  Movements  for  Social  Bet- 
terment, traces  the  origin  of  the  greater  amount  of  attention 
that  is  given  to-day  to  the  betterment  of  social  conditions  to 
the  larger  recognition  of  the  interdependence  of  the  body  and 
mind  and  the  influence  of  physical  conditions  on  spiritual  life. 
He  says:  "It  is  found  that  there  is  an  intimate  relation  be- 
tween a  bad  environment  and  bad  habits;  that  bad  sanitation 
has  not  a  little  to  do  with  bad  morals;  that  bad  ventilation 
and  bad  cooking  are  responsible  for  much  drunkenness.  We 
are  learning  that  whatsoever  society  sows,  that  must  it  also 
reap;  that  pauperism  and  intemperance,  vice  and  crime  are 
as  natural  as  any  other  harvests;  and  that  to  expect  to  escape 
effects  without  removing  their  causes  is  to  mock  God,  who  is 
a  God  of  law." 


ADOLESCENCE 


iV.    ADOLESCENCE 

1.  Stages  of  development.    The  first  twenty-five  years 
of  the  life  of  a  human  being,  extending  from  infancy 
through  childhood,  boyhood  and  youth,  to  manhood,  may 
be  roughly  divided  as  follows : 

Period  of  infancy  and  early  childhood,      1-6  years. 
Period  of  later  childhood,  6-12  years. 

Period  of  adolescence,  12-25  years. 

The  period  of  adolescence  in  turn  may  be  divided  into 
three  stages,  the  characteristics  of  which,  as  indicated  in 
single  words  by  Dr.  Forbush,  Mr.  E.  P.  St.  John,  and  Dr. 
Coe  respectively,  are  appended.  The  significance  of  these 
descriptive  words  will  appear  in  the  development  of  the 
subject: 

Early  adolescence,  12-16,  ferment,  physical,  impulsive. 

Middle  adolescence,  16-18,  crisis,  emotional,  sentimental. 

Later  adolescence,  18-25,  reconstruction,  intellectual, 
reflective. 

2.  Characteristics.     As  the  emphasis  in  this  discussion 
will  be  laid  upon  the  period  of  adolescence,  the  Bible  classes 
in  mind  being  composed  almost  entirely  of  boys  over  twelve 
years  of  age  and  young  men,  the  characteristics  of  the 
periods  of  early  and  later  childhood  will  be  mentioned  only 
to  furnish  a  background  for  a  proper  consideration  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  adolescent  period. 

1-6.  This  is  the  period  of  greatest  physical  activity. 
The  child  is  a  bundle  of  instincts.  He  is  dominated  by 


THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 


curiosity,  manifests  extreme  confidence  and  is  exceedingly 
imitative. 

6-12.  Self -consciousness  begins  now  to  assert  itself. 
Imagination  runs  riot,  emotions  display  themselves,  mem- 
ory is  developed,  and  becomes  tenacious.  The  play  instincts 
are  now  largely  developed,  but  they  are  of  an  individualistic 
character  and  without  special  aim.  There  now  comes  the 
dawning  sense  of  personal  responsibility.  The  child  lives 
in  the  present,  is  frank  and  confidential,  and  obedient  to 
authority. 

12-16.  For  the  sake  of  conciseness  and  definiteness,  the 
characteristics  of  this  period  will  be  named  in  single 
phrases,  and  will  be  designated  as  physical  on  the  one  hand, 
and  psychical  or  mental  and  spiritual  on  the  other  hand: 


Physical. 

Period  of  rapid  growth. 

Heart  increases  in  size. 

Larnyx  and  lungs  enlarge. 

Large  arteries  increase. 

Muscles  grow  rapidly. 

Vocal  chords  elongate. 

Shoulders  broaden  out. 

The  senses  are  strengthened. 

Circulation  becomes  more 
rapid. 

The  skin  becomes  more  sen- 
sitive. 

The  voice  is  deepened. 

Needs  more  sleep  and  food. 

The  beard  grows. 

Brain  stops  growing  by  15. 

Changes  peculiar  to  the  male. 

Period  of  least  mortality. 


Mental  and  Spiritual. 

Assertion  of  selfhood,  various- 
ly described  as  self-asser- 
tion, self-sufficiency,  self- 
feeling,  and  braggadocio. 
Egoism  developing  later 
into  altruism. 

Social  organization  with  same 
sex.  Also  known  as  gang 
instinct. 

Team  work  in  games. 

Restlessness  of  mind. 

Enthusiasm  in  sports. 

Appearance  of  fighting  in- 
stinct 

Full  of  energy. 

Secretiveness  with  parents 
and  others. 

Feeling  of  loneliness. 

Desire  for  sympathy. 

The  wandering  instinct 

Longing  for  the  remote  and 
strange. 

Possessed  by  ideals. 

Desire  for  quick  results. 

Bashful  with  other  sex. 

Time  of  hero  worship. 

16-25.  The  characteristics  of  this  period  may  also  be  in- 
dicated in  single  phrases  as  follows: 


ADOLESCENCE  27 

16-18.  18-25. 

Sentiment  for  opposite  sex.  Guided  by  reason. 

Romantic  interest  Feeling  of  independence. 

Sense  of  mystery  of  existence.  Constructive  activity. 

Period  of  doubt — climax  18.  Reconstruction  of  faith. 

Yet  very  positive.  (20-30,  Starbuck.) 

"Sceptic  and  partisan."     Gu-  Leanings  to  life  occupation, 
lick. 

3.  The  age  of  conversion.  The  history  of  national  and 
ecclesiastical  customs,  as  well  as  the  result  of  scientific  in- 
vestigations, point  to  the  period  between  twelve  and  six- 
teen as  one  of  critical  religious  importance.  We  are  told 
that  it  has  been  a  world-wide  custom  to  celebrate  the  ad- 
vent of  adolescence  with  feasts,  ceremonies  and  mystic 
rites.  This  is  the  age  of  confirmation  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,  the  Church  of  England,  the  Episcopal  Church 
in  America,  the  Lutheran  and  other  churches. 

A  number  of  bodies  of  men  have  been  canvassed  with 
reference  to  learning  the  average  age  of  their  conversion. 
The  following  is  the  summary  of  the  result  of  several  such 
canvasses  in  one  tabulation  by  Dr.  Coe  (Spiritual  Life, 
p.  45)  : 

Cases      Average 
Examined      Age 

Graduates  of  Drew  Seminary 776  16.4 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association 

Officers 526  16.5 

Starbuck's   Conversion  Cases 51  15.7 

Starbuck's    Cases    of    Spontaneous 

Awakening 75  16.3 

Members     of     Rock     River     Con- 
ference    272  16.4 

Coe's  Cases  of  Decisive  Awakening    84  15.4 

1784  16.4 

When,  therefore,  Dr.  Stanley  Hall  speaks  of  conversion 
as  "a  natural  regeneration"  and  "a  physiological  second 
birth,"  and  Dr.  Starbuck  calls  it  "a  distinctively  adolescent 
phenomenon,"  they  are  not  simply  reducing  this  critical 
religious  experience  to  the  terms  of  physiology  or  psychol- 
ogy, but  recognizing  that  in  the  orderly  development  of 


28  THE    TEACHING   OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

the  life  of  the  boy,  according  to  the  laws  of  God,  the 
physiological  and  psychological  changes  which  come  to  him 
at  this  period  are  part  of  a  religious  experience  as  well. 
As  Dr.  Coe  says,  "When  the  approaching  change  has  her- 
alded itself,  the  religious  consciousness  also  tends  to  awak- 
en. When  the  bodily  life  is  in  most  rapid  transition,  the 
religious  instincts  likewise  come  into  a  new  and  greater 
life." 

4.  Applications  to  Bible  teaching:  (1)  By  all  means 
note  the  physical  and  mental  stages  in  the  life  of  the 
student,  especially  from  twelve  to  eighteen,  and  adapt  the, 
instruction  accordingly.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that 
as  "the  child  is  not  a  diminutive  adult/'  so  the  boy  is  not 
a  small  edition  of  the  man.  He  has  a  psychology  all  his 
own.  The  trend  of  his  life  and  the  character  of  his  experi- 
ence are  not  simply  different  in  degree  but  different  in  kind. 
This  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  not  only  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  curriculum  of  instruction,  but  by  the  individual 
teacher  in  his  adaptation  of  each  lesson  to  the  members  of 
his  class. 

(2)  The  boy  of  twelve  needs  a  male  teacher.    As  in  the 
home  the  boy  of  this  age  turns  naturally  from  the  mother 
to  the  father  for  leadership  and  guidance,  so  in  the  in- 
struction of  the  classroom,  he  will  naturally  pass  from  the 
tutelage  of  women,  who,  up  to  this  time,  have  been  his  most 
appropriate  and  most  effective  instructors,  to  that  of  men, 
into  whose  life  and  experiences  he  is  beginning  to  pass. 

(3)  An  appeal  should  be  made  to  the  student's  disposi- 
tion to  activity  in  his  religious  instruction  during  the  en- 
tire period  of  adolescence.     He  now  enters  a  period  of 
restless  doing  and  should  be  made  to  feel  that  religious  in- 
struction may  eventuate  in  doing.    The  mere  passive  study 
of  the  Bible  will  not  meet  the  requirements  of  this  period, 
but  means  of  helping  others  and  practical  methods  of  doing 
good  should  be  pointed  out  to  the  student  through  the 


ADOLESCENCE  29 

instruction.  The  "immediateness"  of  the  youth's  ideals 
also  should  be  recognized  and  the  opportunity  for  the  ex- 
pression of  his  activity  in  these  directions  should  not  be 
delayed.  Dr.  Dawson  thinks  that  God  should  be  presented 
to  young  persons  as  an  active  God,  and  that  our  ideas  are 
still  too  much  colored  by  that  older  transcendent  idea  of 
God  as  one  who  has  finished  his  work — a  king  on  his  throne. 
As  a  corollary  to  this,  the  student  should  be  stimulated  to 
do  the  thing  that  is  hard.  The  representation  of  the  Chris- 
tian life  as  being  "carried  to  the  skies  on  flowery  beds  of 
ease"  is  not  an  appropriate  aspect  in  which  to  present  it 
to  the  student  at  this  period  of  his  life. 

(4)  This  period  also  calls  for  the  manifestation  of  sym- 
pathy on  the  part  of  the  teacher.    The  boy  especially  can 
be  easily  repelled  at  this,  the  most  critical  period  of  his 
life,  from  all  religious  influences.     His  day-dreams  must 
be  respected ;  his  doubts,  neither  ignored  on  the  one  hand, 
nor  magnified  by  antagonism  on  the  other. 

(5)  The  rising  social  instincts  of  this  period  should  be 
recognized  and  utilized.    The  class  might  appropriately  be- 
come a  club,  with  its  organization,  its  officers,  and  its  objects 
of  united  endeavor. 

(6)  The  peculiarities  of  this  period  call  for  certain  char- 
acteristics in  biblical  instruction : 

a.  The  Bible  should  be  presented  to  the  student  as  his- 
tory or  story  or  poetry  as  the  case  may  be.  It  should 
come  to  him  in  its  natural  form  as  literature  rather  than 
in  systematic  form  as  theology  or  doctrine.  This  is  the 
period  for  the  discovery  of  facts,  and  not  for  the  formula- 
tion of  dogmas. 

I.  Biography  will  appeal  to  the  student  during  this 
period.  The  lives  of  the  patriarchs,  prophets  and  the 
apostles  as  men  should  be  held  before  the  student.  In  this 
time  of  hero  worship  he  demands  the  "personalizing  of  re- 
ligion/' The  sacrifices  of  the  early  heroes  of  faith,  the  ad- 


30  THE    TEACHING    OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

ventures  of  St.  Paul,  the  manliness  of  Christ,  these  should 
be  portrayed  in  vivid  colors  and  allowed  to  make  their  own 
appeal  to  the  dramatic  element  in  the  student's  life. 

c.  The  Bible  instruction  during  this  period  should  be 
objective  and  concrete.  The  student  has  not  reached  the 
age  of  introspection.  He  should  not  be  allowed  to  indulge 
in  morbid  speculations  concerning  the  truths  of  Scripture, 
but  should  have  them  presented  to  him  with  the  aid  of  con- 
crete illustrations  and  objective  applications. 

(7)  Most  important  of  all,  have  respect  to  the  "age  of 
conversion."     This  critical  period  in  the  life  of  the  boy 
should  not  be  allowed  to  pass  without  a  surrender  of  his 
will  to  God  and  a  decision  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  Jesus 
Christ.     This  period  once  passed  without  such  surrender 
and  decision,  the  boy  may  find  himself  as  a  man  launched 
on  the  sea  of  doubt  or  dissipation,  whence  his  return  to  a 
religious  anchorage  will  be  through  much  storm  and  stress 
and  after  many  devious  wanderings. 

(8)  Mr.  Pease,  in  his  Bible  School  Curriculum,  has  sug- 
gested that  for  the  period  of  middle  and  later  adolescence 
the  teacher  must  depend  more  upon  guiding  the  young  man 
by  an  appeal  to  his  reason  than  by  an  appeal  to  his  affec- 
tion, or  by  an  authoritative  presentation  of  truth  which  is 
to  be  accepted  without  question ;  must  enlist  the  student  in 
some  form  of  active  service,  and  must  treat  each  case  sepa- 
rately, instead  of  depending  wholly  or  mainly  on  mass 
teaching  or  class  teaching. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

Adolescence:  Its  Psychology  and  Its  Relations  to  Physiology, 
Anthropology,  Sociology,  Sex,  Crime,  Religion,  and  Education. 
G.  Stanley  Hall  (2  Vols.,  $7.50  net.  The  standard  and  compre- 
hensive work  OB  this  subject). 

*The  Boy  Problem;  A  Study  in  Social  Pedagogy.  William 
Byron  Forbush,  pp.  9-41.  (75  cente.) 

*The  Religion  of  Boys.  Luther  Halsey  Gulick.  Association 
Boys,  April.  1902-August,  1903. 

A  Boy's  Religion.    George  E.  Dawson.  (10  cents.) 


ADOLESCENCE  31 

The  Work  of  a  Boys'  Department.    Coe,  pp.  37-40. 

The  Religious  Life  of  Boys.  Edward  K.  Allen,  Association 
Seminar,  October,  November,  December,  1902.  ($1.00  per 
annum.) 

Moral  and  Religious  Education.  Forbush.  How  to  Help 
Boys.  ($1.00  per  annum.) 

The  Spiritual  Life.  Coe,  pp.  29-103.  Education  in  Religion 
and  Morals.  Coe,  pp.  247-267. 

The  Psychology  of  Religion.    E.  D.  Starbuck.     ($1.50.) 

The  Pedagogical  Bible  School.  S.  B.  Haslett,  pp.  100-203.  ($1.25.) 

Principles  of  Religious  Education.  Hall,  pp.  159-189.  Me- 
Murry,  pp.  191-211. 

*A  Chart  of  Childhood  and  a  Chart  of  Adolescence.  Edward 
P.  St.  John.  (15  cents  each;  2  for  25  cents.) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

As  Professor  H.  M.  Burr  says,  "If  the  boy's  ideal  of  man- 
hood is  Fitzsimmons,  he  immediately  sets  about  punching 
some  other  boy's  head.  If  he  thinks  the  life  of  an  Indian  the 
ideal,  he  straightway  takes  to  the  woods  or  whoops  it  up  in 
the  alley,  as  the  case  may  be."  For  this  reason  the  wise  boys' 
club  leader  who  proposes  an  attractive  new  plan  will  take  heed 
always  to  carry  it  into  effect  at  the  very  next  meeting.  The 
Boy  Problem.  Forbush,  pp.  20-21. 

Of  interest  in  this  connection  is  the  fact,  not  generally 
known,  that  during  adolescence  is  the  period  of  greatest  ques- 
tioning in  regard  to  religious  matters;  it  is  the  period  of 
doubt.  Mr.  F.  S.  Brockman,  in  an  unpublished  study  of  the 
religious  life  of  251  preparatory  and  high  school  students,  has 
clear  and  interesting  facts  upon  this  matter.  Ninety-three 
had  religious  doubts.  They  were  arranged  by  years  as  fol- 
lows: 

13  to  15 8 

16  to  19 19 

20  to  22 15 

23  to  25 11 

26  to  29 1 

Mr.  Brockman  says,  "The  doubts  arising  from  mental  de- 
velopment are  normal  and  in  every  way  helpful  and  healthful. 
It  is  but  the  readjustment  of  faith  when  one  is  beginning  to 
think,  and  should  result  in  stronger  faith."  Association  Boys. 
October,  1902.  Gulick,  p.  166. 

We  may  safely  lay  it  down  as  a  law  of  growth  that  is  almost 
a  universal  tendency  for  the  perplexity,  uncertainty  and  nega- 
tion of  adolescence  to  be  followed  by  a  period  of  reconstruc- 
tion, in  which  religious  truth  is  apperceived  and  takes  shape 
as  an  immediate  individual  possession.  *  *  *  The  com- 
mon trend  of  religious  growth  is  from  childhood  faith,  through 
doubt,  reaction  and  estrangement,  into  a  positive  hold  on  re- 


32  THE    TEACHING    OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

ligion,  through  an  individual  reconstruction  of  belief  and 
faith.  The  Psychology  of  Religion.  Starbuck,  280,  283. 

When  an  Omaha  boy  arrives  at  puberty  he  is  sent  forth  into 
the  wilderness  to  fast  in  solitude  for  four  days.  To  develop 
self-control,  he  is  provided  with  bow  and  arrows,  but  is  for- 
bidden to  kill  any  creature.  Arrived  on  the  mountains,  he 
lifts  up  his  voice  to  the  Great  Spirit  in  a  song  that  has  been 
sung  under  such  circumstances  from  before  the  time  that  the 
white  man  first  set  foot  upon  these  shores.  The  words  of  the 
song  are,  "God!  here,  poor  and  needy,  I  stand!"  The  melody 
is  so  soulful,  so  appealingly  prayerful,  that  one  can  scarcely 
believe  it  to  be  of  barbarous  origin.  Yet  what  miracles  may 
not  religious  feeling  work?  The  boy  is  waiting,  in  fact,  for 
a  vision  from  on  high — a  revelation  to  be  vouchsafed  to  him 
personally  and  to  show  what  his  life  is  to  be,  whether  that 
of  a  hunter,  or  of  a  warrior,  or  of  medicine  man,  etc.  Do  you 
not  perceive  how  the  very  same  impulses  sway  both  the  In- 
dian boy  and  the  boy  of  civilization?  Here  is  the  desire  to 
come  into  personal  relations  with  the  divinity;  here  is  the 
facing  of  ultimate  mystery  and  of  destiny;  here  is  the  most 
troublesome  problem  of  youth — that  of  the  lifework.  The  Spir- 
itual Life.  Coe,  pp.  48-49. 

Objective  righteousness  is  not  predominantly  fostered  in 
the  church,  and  in  so  far  does  not  correspond  to  the  best  char- 
acteristics of  young  manhood.  During  the  last  twenty-five 
years,  in  our  prayer  meetings  and  churches,  we  have  heard  a 
great  deal  of  the  following  topics  (we  do  not  mean  that  these 
topics  are  exclusive,  or  that  they  particularly  characterize  the 
meetings  of  the  present  day) :  Faith,  the  feeling  of  love  to 
God,  the  sense  of  sin,  repentance,  the  significance  of  the  atone- 
ment, joy  in  Christian  life,  anticipation  of  Heaven,  en- 
durance of  trials,  the  resistance  of  evil,  endurance  of 
suffering,  anticipation  of  the  joys  of  Heaven,  patience. 
Such  topics  as  these  do  not  correspond  to  the  dominant  char- 
acteristics of  young  manhood  of  which  I  have  been  speaking, 
in  two  ways.  First,  they  are  predominantly  emotional,  and 
second,  predominantly  introspective.  They  are  not  related 
most  definitely  to  doing  things,  this  doing  things  that  is  the 
representation  of  the  objective  religious  life  which  must  char- 
acterize young  manhood.  The  emotional  nature  appears  to  be 
more  highly  developed  in  women  than  in  men.  These  virtues 
are  more  virtues  of  endurance,  of  conservatism,  of  femininity, 
than  they  are  of  objective  righteousness,  of  katabolic  man- 
hood. And  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  any  institution  that 
lays  prominent  emphasis  upon  topics  of  this  kind  will  succeed 
In  permanently  interesting  or  holding  the  allegiance  of  men 
whose  predominant  and  best  characteristics  are  of  another 
kind.  The  Association  Outlook.  Gulick.  December,  1893,  p.  42. 


PART  TWO 


THE  STUDENT:  HIS  PHYSICAL,  MENTAL  AND 
SPIRITUAL  NATURE 


ATTENTION— INTEREST  35 


Man 


VI.    ATTENTION  — INTEEEST 

We  have  seen  that  man  is  regarded  as  having  three 
departments,  known  as  body,  mind  and  spirit.  Mind,  in 
turn,  is  found  to  have  three  great  capacities  designated  as 
knowing,  feeling  and  willing.  The  capacity  to  know,  in 
turn,  is  now  to  be  considered  in  various  aspects,  the  first 
of  which  we  call  "Attention."  This  division  of  the  powers 
and  capacities  of  man  may  be  represented  by  the  accompany- 
ing diagram: 

Body 

"Attention 

f  Knowing, 
MindJ  Feeling 

[  Willing 
Spirit 

1.  Definition.  The  power  the  mind  has  for  know- 
ing itself,  its  own  acts,  states  and  purposes,  is  called  "con- 
sciousness." Consciousness  also  includes  the  power  of  the 
soul  to  know  itself  as  the  knower.  This  is  the  great  central 
fact  of  the  mind.  Indeed,  it  is  so  fundamental  that  it  is 
often  regarded  as  being  synonymous  with  the  mind  itself. 
It  is  this  that  gives  me  my  sense  of  personal  identity,  that 
gives  me  the  knowledge  that  I  am  I,  without  which  there 
would  be  no  basis  for  other  mental  operations. 

When  consciousness  is  concentrated  on  a  single  object 
we  have  attention.  Hence  attention  has  been  appropriately 
defined  as  "focussed  consciousness."  Attention  is  that  at- 
titude of  the  mind  in  which  one  or  more  of  its  powers 


36  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

are  fixed  upon  something  that  is  presented  to  it  from 
without  or  within.  Attention  is  not  a  separate  faculty 
of  the  mind  like  memory  or  imagination.  It  is  rather  a 
state  of  mind  affecting  one  or  more  of  the  faculties.  The 
word  attention  comes  from  two  words,  meaning  "to  stretch 
towards."  It  is  therefore  the  reaching  out  of  the  mind 
for  a  particular  thing  with  which  it  may  be  concerned  at  the 
time.  Sully  speaks  of  attention  as  "the  ability  to  detain 
objects  before  the  mind."  As  the  operator  of  the  stereop- 
ticon  has  the  power  to  detain  a  particular  view  of  the  mov- 
ing panorama  while  he  passes  others  on  into  obscurity,  so 
the  mind  determines  which  of  the  many  sensations  and 
images  passing  in  review  before  it  shall  be  held  for  more 
careful  consideration. 

2.  Two  kinds  of  attention.  Attention  has  been  divided 
into  two  kinds  which  have  been  variously  designated  as 
voluntary  and  involuntary,  voluntary  and  spontaneous,  com- 
pelled and  attracted.  The  first  is  that  which  is  commanded 
by  the  will.  It  must  not  be  expected  that  attention  secured 
in  this  way  shall  be  sustained.  The  most  disciplined  mind 
has  difficulty  in  fixing  itself  for  any  length  of  time  by  sheer 
force  of  will  on  a  given  object.  The  chief  value  of  com- 
pelled attention  is  as  an  introduction  to  attracted  attention. 
The  teacher  may  compel  attention  at  the  beginning  of  the 
lesson,  but  unless  it  soon  pass  into  attracted  attention  it 
will  not  be  sustained. 

Therefore  we  lay  emphasis  on  involuntary  or  spontan- 
OUB,  or  attracted  attention,  and  it  is  at  this  point  that 
interest  comes  in.  President  Schurman  says  that  "Interest 
is  the  greatest  word  in  education,"  and  another  says  that 
"Interest  is  the  motive  power  of  attention."  That  which 
the  mind  is  interested  in  it  will  fix  itself  upon  with  eager- 
ness. Gregory  compares  attracted  attention  with  mental 
hunger  seeking  its  food  and  delighting  itself  as  at  a  feast. 
So  absorbed  does  the  mind  become  in  that  in  which  it  is 


ATTENTION— INTEREST  3? 

interested  as  to  be  unaware  of  sensations  that  come  to  it 
through  ordinary  channels.  Soldiers  are  said  to  have  be- 
come so  absorbed  in  battle  that  they  have  not  known  when 
they  were  wounded.  Henry  Clay,,  when  in  delicate  health, 
was  compelled  to  speak  on  one  occasion,  and  asked  a  friend 
to  stop  him  at  the  end  of  twenty  minutes.  Repeated  pull- 
ing of  his  coattails,  pinching,  and  even  running  of  a  pin 
into  his  leg,  failed  to  divert  his  attention  from  his  sub- 
ject, and  he  finally  sank  exhausted  into  his  chair  at  the 
end  of  two  hours. 

3.  How  to  secure  attention.  Without  attention  there 
can  be  no  teaching.  As  well  commence  before  the  class  is 
assembled,  or  proceed  after  it  is  dismissed,  as  to  attempt 
to  teach  without  the  attention  of  the  students.  Negatively, 
then,  attention  is  not  to  be  secured  by  clamor  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher.  It  may  not  be  claimed  by  any  appeals.  The 
teacher  who  in  loud  tones  calls  for  attention  is  not  so  apt 
to  secure  it  as  the  one  who  lowers  his  voice  or  ceases  for  the 
moment  altogether.  The  pause  in  the  vibrations  of  the 
machinery  aboard  ship  causes  the  passengers  to  awake, 
whereas  an  increase  in  the  vibrations  might  only  lull  to  a 
sounder  sleep.  "Nothing,"  says  Gregory,  "can  be  more 
tmphilosophical  than  the  attempt  to  compel  the  wearied 
attention  to  new  effort  by  mere  authority.  As  well  compel 
embers  to  rekindle  into  a  blaze  by  blowing." 

Among  the  methods  of  securing  attention,  we  turn  first 
to  those  which  inhere  in  the  subject-matter  itself,  which 
have  to  do  with  the  handling  of  the  material  in  such  a 
way  as  to  arouse  interest  when  it  could  not  otherwise  exist, 
and  later  to  artificial  devices : 

(1)  Contact.  It  is  a  fundamental  law  that  interest  is  not 
usually  aroused  on  the  one  hand  by  that  which  is  entirely 
new,  so  new  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  mind  with  which  the 
object  can  be  related,  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  by  that  which 
is  very  familiar,  so  familiar  that  it  presents  no  new  situa- 


38  THE    TEACHING    OP    BIBLE    CLASSES 

tion  to  the  mind  for  its  consideration.  Miss  Edgeworth 
reports  that  a  company  of  Esquimaux  taken  to  London  had 
no  interest  in  its  sights  because  they  were  too  new  and  too 
strange.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  average 
Londoner  walked  the  same  streets  at  the  same  time  with- 
out being  any  more  interested  because  the  sights  were  too 
familiar.  A  combination  of  the  new  with  the  old  is  neces- 
sary to  attention.  "The  old  in  a  new  setting,  or  the  new  in 
an  old  setting,  is  the  arrangement  that  insures  interest." 

The  teacher  in  introducing  a  new  subject  to  the  student 
must  commence  at  that  point  in  the  student's  present  knowl- 
edge which  is  nearest  to  the  subject  in  hand.  This  Mr. 
Patterson  DuBois  calls  "the  point  of  contact."  Here  the 
teacher  must  attach  his  subject.  This  process  Mr.  DuBois 
again  calls  "interest  grafting."  For  example,  when  Mr. 
Henry  Clay  Trumbull  was  called  upon  to  interest  a  class 
of  mission  school  boys  in  the  53rd  chapter  of  Isaiah,  he 
asked,  "Boys,  did  any  one  of  you  ever  see  a  sheep  shear- 
ing?" One  boy  responding  affirmatively,  Mr.  Trumbull 
continued,  "Boys,  just  listen  all  of  you ;  Billy  here  is  going 
to  tell  about  a  sheep  shearing  he  saw  in  the  country."  After 
the  description  Mr.  Trumbull  asked  of  the  narrator,  "How 
much  noise  did  the  sheep  make  about  being  sheared  ?"  "He 
didn't  bleat  a  bit,"  was  the  reply.  "Well,  now,"  asked  Mr. 
Trumbull,  "how  does  that  story  agree  with  what  the  Bible 
says  about  sheep  shearing  ?" 

In  the  case  of  older  students  the  biblical  material  may 
oftentimes  be  related  to  the  dominant  interests  of  life 
as  they  appear  in  the  pursuit  or  occupation  of  the  t>tuden$. 
Instead  of  coming  to  the  Bible  with  exegesis,  th$t  is,  t& 
draw  out  of  it  instruction  which  may  be  applied  at  random 
to  this  or  that  interest  of  life,  it  is  legitimate  at  times 
to  come  to  the  Bible  from  the  standpoint  of  these  interests 
and  find  what  light  the  Bible  has  to  shed  upon  them.  The 
question  that  may  be  absorbing  several  students  may  be 


ATTENTION— INTEREST  39 

their  relation  to  their  employers.  What  the  Bible  has  to 
say  about  the  relation  of  the  workman  to  his  employer 
would  be  sure  to  arouse  the  interest  of  such  and  to  command 
their  attention.  (A  course  of  study  based  on  such  topics  as 
these  and  covering  a  wide  range  of  vital  interests  in  the  lif  n 
of  young  men  has,  in  fact,  been  prepared  and  has  been  foun< 
to  produce  just  the  results  here  indicated.  It  is  entitled 
"Life  Problems/'  and  is  published  by  the  International 
Committee  of  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations.)  Prof. 
Charles  De  Garmo  has  written  a  book  on  Interest  and  Edu- 
cation, the  fundamental  proposition  of  which  is  that  interest 
arises  primarily  from  the  activities  put  forth  by  men  to  se- 
cure the  requisites  for  their  physical  survival.  Interest  in 
this  view  of  the  case  becomes  an  effort  at  self-expression.  We 
must  bear  in  mind  that  the  biblical  material  abstractly  con- 
sidered is  not,  as  a  rule,  of  overpowering  interest  to  the  boy 
or  young  man,  but  by  associating  the  biblical  material  with 
that  which  is  dominating  his  life  at  the  time,  a  point  of 
contact  is  effected  and  interest  is  grafted  by  which  the 
dominant  interest  of  the  life  is  carried  over  into  the  biblical 
material.  The  ideas  and  concerns  of  the  student's  every- 
day life  by  this  process  reach  out  and  absorb  into  them- 
selves the  spiritual  nutriment  of  the  biblical  material.  All 
this  is  in  accordance  with  a  principle  which  Prof.  James 
describes  as  follows:  "Any  object  not  interesting  in  itself 
may  become  interesting  through  becoming  associated  with 
an  object  in  which  an  interest  already  exists.  The  two 
associated  objects  grow,  as  it  were,  together:  the  interest 
borrowed  sheds  its  quality  over  the  whole  and  thus  things 
not  interesting  in  their  own  right  borrow  an  interest 
which  becomes  as  real  and  as  strong  as  that  in  any  natively 
interesting  thing." 

(2)  Change.  Novelty  is  another  condition  of  sustained 
attention.  The  same  routine  followed  in  the  instruction 
of  each  lesson  will  soon  result  in  flagging  interest.  It  must 


"40  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

be  remembered  that  sustained  attention  is  the  acquirement 
of  a  few,  and  new  topics  must  be  introduced,  startling  ques- 
tions offered,  and  every  effort  made  to  avoid  sameness  in 
the  method  of  the  lesson.  Archbishop  Whateley  said 
that  "curiosity  is  the  parent  of  attention." 

(3)  Concreteness.     Untrained  minds  especially  are  not 
interested  in  abstract  themes.     Such  themes  must  be  put 
into  concrete  form  in  order  to  command  attention.    "The 
native  interests  of  children  lie  altogether  in  sensation." 
That  which  lies  at  hand  therefore  will  distract  attention 
from  abstract  subjects  presented  by  word  of  mouth.    Illus- 
trations of  the  subject  in  hand  drawn  from  the  daily  life  of 
the  student  will  contribute  to  this  end.    The  use  of  object 
lessons  and  blackboard  drawings  will  also  serve  to  bring 
the  subject  within  the  grasp,  and  so  within  the  range  of 
interest  of  the  student.     If  it  is  not  practicable  to  use  a 
blackboard,  a  class  slate,  or  paper,  may  be  drawn  into 
requisition.     Even  the  motions  of  illustrating  on  black- 
board, slate  or  paper,  are  better  than  nothing. 

(4)  Concentration.    The  intensity  of  attention  will  vary 
according  to  the  number  of  topics  which  the  mind  is  called 
upon  to  consider  within  a  given  time.     The  teacher  may 
possibly  secure  the  attention  of  the  student  to  a  number  of 
thoughts  in  a  lesson  hour,  but  the  attention  will  be  super- 
ficial in  the  case  of  each.    A  wise,  selection  of  subjects  to 
be  impressed  should  be  made.    Better  a  profound  attention 
to  one  important  lesson  to  be  learned  than  a  superficial 
interest  in  a  number  of  topics. 

(5)  Suggestiveness.    The  wise  teacher  will  not  exhaust 
the  subject  in  hand  and  will  leave  avenues  of  interest  to 
be  followed  out  by  the  student.     Adams  says,  "The  in- 
teresting person  supplies  the  premises  but  he  leaves  his 
hearers  to  draw  their  own  conclusion.    That  is  their  share 
— a  share  that  they  enjoy — but  your  dull  man  does  not  spare 
a  single  detail." 


ATTENTION— INTEREST  41 

(6)  The  teacher  should  be  interested  in  his  subject. 
Interest  is  contagious.    Nothing  will  so  arouse  the  interest 
of  the  student  in  the  subject  as  to  note  that  the  teacher 
himself  is  possessed  with  it,  is  on  fire  with  it,  is  intent  on 
conveying  it  to  some  one  else. 

(7)  Many  devices  have  been  suggested  for  the  securing  of 
attention  aside  from  methods  which  grow  out  of  the  han- 
dling of  the  subject-matter.     Some  of  these  may  be  noted 
briefly  as  follows :     Do  not  commence  until  attention  is 
secured.     Pause  when  attention  is  interrupted.     Arrange 
for  change  of  posture.    Vary  the  method  of  procedure,  but 
keep  the  lesson  in  view.    Provide  against  distractions  from 
the  outside.    Stop  when  there  is  evidence  of  fatigue.    Eead 
in  concert.    Read  elliptically.     (See  "Attention,"  by  Fitch, 
p.  54.)     Prepare  questions  that  will  awaken  thought.    Ask 
questions  first,  then  call  the  name  of  the  student  who  is 
to  answer.    Ask  questions  promptly.    Address  question  to 
wandering  student.     Use  illustrations  suited  to  the  age 
and  attainments  of  the  student. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING.     \ 
•Teaching  and  Teachers.    Trumbull,  pp.  70-78,  138-149. 
•Talks  to  Teachers.    James,  pp.  91-115. 
•Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.    Gregory,  pp.  28-47. 
How  to  Teach  the  Bible.    Gregory,  pp.  44-50. 
Primer  on  Teaching.    Adams,  pp.  32-46. 
Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching.    DuBois,  pp.  49-81. 
Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology.     Sully,  pp.  135-167. 
Psychology  in  Education.    Roark,  pp.  47-55.     . 
Education  in  Religion  and  Morals.    Coe,  pp.  112-118. 
The  Art  of  Securing  Attention.    J.  G.  Fitch.     (15  cerits.) 
Securing  and  Retaining  Attention.  J.  L.  Hughes.    (50  cents.) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

In  teaching  you  must  simply  work  your  pupil  into  such  a 
state  of  interest  in  what  you  are  going  to  teach  him  that  every 
object  of  attention  is  banished  from  the  mind;  then  reveal  it 
to  him  so  impressively  that  he  will  remember  the  occasion 
to  his  dying  day ;  and  finally  fill  him  with  devouring  curiosity 
to  know  what  the  next  steps  in  connection  with  the  subject 
are.  Talks  to  Teachers.  James,  p.  10. 

Until  it  pleases  God  to  impart  to  a  little  child,  either  through 
the  instrumentality  of  wise  teaching  or  otherwise,  an  appetite 


'42      THE  TEACHING  OP  BIBLE  CLASSES 

for  sacred  truths,  he  has  no  natural  curiosity  about  them. 
He  is  naturally  very  inquisitive  about  things  that  surround 
him;  he  is  curious  to  learn  about  the  sun,  and  the  moon,  and 
the  stars;  about  distant  countries;  about  the  manners  of 
foreigners;  about  birds  and  beasts  and  fishes;  nay,  even  about 
machines  and  many  other  human  inventions;  but  about  the 
nature  of  God,  and  about  man's  relations  to  him,  and  the  great 
truths  of  the  revealed  religion,  you  know  that  there  is  rarely 
any  real  curiosity  in  a  child's  mind.  You  do  not  find  the  appe- 
tite for  such  knowledge  as  this  already  existing  there.  You 
have  to  create  it;  and  until  you  have  created  it,  he  cannot 
give  you  the  fixed  and  earnest  attention  you  want  without  an 
effort  which  is  positively  painful  to  him.  The  Art  of  Securing 
Attention.  Fitch,  p.  45. 

No  good  teaching  without  attention;  no  attention  without 
interest;  no  interest  without  objects.  And  the  argument  holds 
good  for  all  grades  of  students  from  the  kindergarten  to  the 
university.  The  university  of  to-day  has  "object  lessons"  in 
almost  every  department  of  study,  as  witness  the  splendidly 
equipped  laboratories,  museums,  maps,  pictures,  etc.,  that  are 
in  daily  use.  No  teacher  of  a  country  school  should  for  a 
minute  think  that  he  can  teach  well  without  illustrative  ma- 
terial, any  more  than  the  professor  of  chemistry  can  without 
a  laboratory.  It  is  only  necessary  to  remember  that  the  ap- 
paratus must  be  adapted  to  the  pupil's  ability  and  advance- 
ment, and  to  the  subject  of  instruction.  Psychology  in  Edu- 
cation. Roark,  p.  49. 

A  young  man  applied  to  a  city  dry-goods  jobber  for  a  po- 
sition as  salesman.  "Can  you  sell  goods?"  was  the  merchant's 
first  question.  "I  can  sell  goods  to  any  man  who  really  wants 
to  buy,"  was  the  qualified  rejoinder.  "Oh,  nonsense!"  said 
the  merchant  "Anybody  can  sell  goods  to  a  man  who  really 
wants  to  buy.  I  want  salesmen  who  can  sell  goods  to  men 
who  don't  want  to  buy."  Teaching  and  Teachers.  Trum- 
bull,  p.  139. 

There  is  a  curious  microscopic  creature  of  the  ponds,  called 
the  amoeba,  the  very  name  of  which  signifies  constant  change. 
Simple  as  its  life  is,  the  changes  that  take  place  in  it  are 
typical  of  the  life-processes  in  all  the  higher  animals,  and 
even  of  the  processes  of  the  growth  of  the  mind.  What  does 
this  speck  of  jelly  (or  protoplasm)  do  in  order  to  live?  It 
has  a  power,  in  the  first  place,  of  stretching  out  a  part  of  it- 
self towards  any  object  that  may  eerve  it  as  food,  extemporiz- 
ing a  sort  of  mouth.  The  second  power  which  the  amoeba  has 
is  that  of  retaining  the  valuable  parts  of  the  food  material, 
by  which  means  it  maintains  its  life,  repairs  organic  waste 
and  grows.  The  mind  has  two  similar  powers.  It  stretches 
out  toward  that  which  answers  to  its  hunger  or  its  "interest," 
and  BO  supplies  itself  with  the  materials  whereby  it  lives  and 
grows.  This  act  of  "stretching  out  towards"  an  object  pre- 
sented to  the  mind  we  call  attention.  The  Teacher  and  the 
Child.  Mark,  pp.  19-20. 


PERCEPTION—  APPERCEPTION 


VII.    PERCEPTION  —  APPERCEPTION 

I.      PERCEPTION 

1.  Meaning  of  perception.  The  mind  receives  its  knowl- 
edge of  the  outside  world  through  nerves  which  have 
their  source  in  the  brain  and  extend  to  various  portions  of 
the  body.  We  may  call  the  nerves  which  carry  impressions 
to  the  brain  from  the  outside  "incarrying,"  and  those  which 
convey  impulses  from  the  mind  outward  "outcarrying." 
Sensation  is  the  mental  state  produced  by  a  stimulus  ap- 
plied from  the  outside  to  an  incarrying  nerve.  The  sharp 
point  of  a  .pin  is  applied  to  the  end  of  my  finger  and 
immediately  an  impression  is  conveyed  along  the  nerve  lines 
to  the  mind.  This  impression  is  called  sensation.  Percep- 
tion is  the  recognition  by  the  mind  of  that  which  causes  the 
sensation.  The  infant  without  experience  is  unable  to 
recognize  the  sensation  as  having  been  produced  by  a  pin- 
point, and  is  therefore  without  a  perception.  Indeed,  it  is 
only  in  infancy  that  sensation  is  not  followed  immediately, 
as  a  rule,  by  perception.  In  later  years  the  accumulations 
of  experience  enable  the  mind  to  refer  the  sensation  im- 
mediately to  the  object  producing  it  and  so  perception  is 
formed.  One  sometimes  has  an  undefined  impression  of 
discomfort  in  sleeping  caused  by  insufficient  covering.  This 
may  be  called  a  sensation.  When  the  sleeper  is  sufficiently 
aroused  to  understand  that  he  is  cold,  and  that  he  must 
draw  more  covering  over  him,  he  may  be  said  to  have  a 
perception  of  cold.  The  agents  through  which  sensations 
are  received  are  called  the  senses.  These  are  five  in  num- 
ber, and  are  called  taste,  smell,  touch,  hearing  and  sight. 


44  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

These  are  here  indicated  in  the  order  of  their  refinement, 
taste  and  smell  being  the  lowest  in  form,  while  sight  is  the 
most  delicate  and  complex.  Perceptions  received  through 
the  medium  of  the  senses  are  sometimes  called  sense-per- 
ceptions. 

2.  Training  of  perceptions.  Great  emphasis  is  laid  to- 
day on  the  training  of  the  perceptions  in  denniteness  and 
accuracy.  The  mind  is  thus  developed  in  its  powers  of 
observation.  The  forms  of  objects  are  receiving  closer  scru- 
tiny and  the  student  taught  to  outline  these  not  only  by 
verbal  description  but  also  by  hand.  Manual  training  has 
been  introduced  into  our  systems  of  education,  and  the 
student  is  learning  to  work  with  his  hand  as  well  as  with 
his  head.  The  habit  of  observation,  attention  to  details, 
precision,  honest  adherence  to  facts,  and  self-reliance,  are 
among  the  intellectual  advantages  rising  from  this  train- 
ing of  the  perceptions. 

But  there  is  a  moral  value  as  well  in  the  training  of  the 
senses  and  perceptions.  Roark  notes  that  the  education  of 
the  senses  means  the  training  of  the  mind  to  the  proper 
use  and  enjoyment  of  the  materials  which  the  senses  furnish 
to  it,  and  adds  that  "the  mind  will  see  only  what  it  is 
capable  of  seeing  however  much  more  there  may  be  to  see 
and  however  ready  the  eye  and  nerve  fibre  and  brain  may  be 
to  do  their  work."  In  the  same  direction,  Miss  Harrison,  in 
her  "Study  of  Child  Nature,"  says  that  "the  habit  of  con- 
trasting or  comparing  in  material  things  leads  to  a  fineness 
of  distinction  in  higher  matters.  John  Ruskin  and  like 
thinkers  claim  that  a  perception  of  and  love  for  the  beauti- 
ful in  nature  leads  directly  into  a  discernment  of  the  beau- 
tiful in  the  moral  world."  We  may  safely  leave  this  train- 
ing of  the  senses  and  perceptions  to  the  schools.  The  sub- 
ject is  introduced  here  simply  to  emphasize  the  fact  that 
in  importing  methods  of  manual  training,  including  draw- 
ing, the  making  of  models  and  other  objects,  into  biblical 


PERCEPTION— APPERCEPTION          45 

instruction,  we  are  bringing  in  the  help  of  a  natural  and 
congenial  agency,  and  thus  once  again  religion  is  doing  no 
more  than  claiming  its  own. 

Outside  of  the  moral  training  involved  in  the  work  of 
making  such  objects,  the  use  of  them  is  of  incalculable  value 
to  the  teacher  of  the  Bible.  No  teacher  who  desires  to  con- 
vey accurate  conceptions  of  facts  which  are  based  on  Orien- 
tal forms  and  customs  will  be  without  the  map  and  black- 
board. Even  a  crude  representation  of  a  house  in  Pales- 
tine, with  its  access  to  the  roof  from  the  outside,  would 
give  meaning  to  the  story  of  the  letting  down  from  the 
roof  of  the  paralytic  into  the  presence  of  Jesus.  A  brief 
consideration  of  the  form  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  with  its 
mountainous  environment  would  explain  the  sudden  and 
severe  storms  which  swept  down  upon  that  lake  and  threat- 
ened the  safety  of  the  boats  upon  its  surface.  A  map  of 
Palestine  with  lines  indicating  the  tours  of  Jesus  up  and 
down,  and  hither  and  thither,  gives  a  consecutiveness  to 
the  study  of  His  life  and  works  that  is  afforded  by  no  other 
means.  (Valuable  suggestions  concerning  the  materials 
needed  and  the  methods  of  making  pulp  and  other  maps, 
are  given  in  a  course  of  study  intended  for  Boys'  Bible 
Classes,  entitled  Men  of  the  Bible,  published  by  the  In- 
ternational Committee  of  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tions, 3  West  29th  street,  New  York.  Map  Modelling,  by 
Maltby;  Pictured  Truth,  by  Pierce,  and  The  Blackboard 
in  the  Sunday-School,  by  Bailey,  will  be  of  service.  See  also 
Lesson  XIX,  on  Object  Illustrations.) 

Every  wise  teacher  will  command  as  many  channels  of 
sensation  as  possible  rather  than  allow  other  students  or 
the  school  environment  to  do  so.  The  more  senses  the 
teacher  can  command  the  greater  the  impression.  The  eye- 
gate  should  be  used  as  well  as  the  ear-gate  in  conveying 
knowledge  to  the  mind,  and  to  this  should  be  added,  as  has 
already  been  indicated,  the  gateway  of  touch. 


46  THE    TEACHING   OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

II.      APPERCEPTION" 

1.  Definition.    The  derivation  of  this  word  from  "ad" 
and  "perception"  gives  an  immediate  clue  to  its  meaning, 
which  is  that  certain  mental  acts  are  added  to  perception. 
A  more  ordinary  word  for  apperception  is  assimilation, 
which  suggests  that  the  mental  process  indicated  by  the 
word  is  akin  to  the  taking  up  by  the  body  of  that  which 
comes  to  it  in  the  form  of  food  or  other  sustenance,  and 
digesting  it,  and  making  it  a  part  of  that  which  has  prev- 
iously been  received.    It  is  a  "spontaneous  act  of  the  mind 
in  immediately  seeking  something  in  its  store  of  ideas  with 
which  to  classify  a  new  idea ;  the  translation  and  interpre- 
tation of  the  new  in  the  terms  of  the  known/'    The  South 
Sea  Islanders  who  were  familiar  with  sheep  called  the  first 
hog  that  they  ever  saw  a  "grunting  sheep."     Mr.  Rooper 
has  given  to  a  book  on  the  subject  of  apperception  the  title 
"A  Pot  of  Green  Feathers,"  because  that  was  the  name 
applied  to  a  pot  of  ferns  by  a  child  who  had  never  seen 
ferns  before. 

2.  Application  to  Bible  Teaching.    It  is  important  that 
the  teacher  should  be  familiar  with  this  principle  of  mental 
operation   and   should   work   in   accordance  with   it.     In 
bringing  to  the  student  something  new  he  should  consider 
what  the  student  has  already  acquired  to  which  the  new 
subject  may  be  attached  and  into  which  it  will  fit.    This 
body  of  acquisitions  already  secured  by  the  student  has 
been  called  "an  apperceiving  mass."     The  skilful  teacher 
will  consider  whether  the  information  that  is  to  be  con- 
veyed to  the  student  in  a  given  lesson  will  find  a  congenial 
and  effective  reception  in  the  body  of  acquisitions  which 
the  student  has  already  made.    Especially  is  it  important 
in  the  case  of  religious  instruction,  which  has  to  do  with 
thoughts  and  ideas  which  are  not  so  easily  handled  as  more 
concrete  knowledge,  that  the  teacher  should  convey  the 


PERCEPTION— APPERCEPTION         4? 

spiritual  truth  in  such  a  way  as  that  it  will  attach  itself 
naturally  and  effectively  to  other  thoughts  and  ideas  which 
the  student  may  already  have  acquired.  For  example,  the 
fatherhood  of  God  can  be  conveyed  to  the  mind  most  effec- 
tively through  the  knowledge  which  the  student  already  pos- 
sesses of  the  meaning  of  the  fatherhood  of  ordinary  family 
relations.  (See  Lesson  XIII  on  Adaptation  for  further  de- 
velopment of  this  subject.) 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

The  Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology.  Sully,  pp.  106-133, 
168-206. 

*Psychology  in  Education.  Roark,  pp.  67-68,  155-159, 
163-164. 

Talks  to  Teachers.    James,  pp.  33-36;  58-60,  155-168. 

The  Blackboard  in  Sunday-school.  Henry  Turner  Bailey, 
pp.  24-31.  (75  cents.) 

*The  Point  of  Contact.    DuBois. 

A  Pot  of  Green  Feathers.  (Apperception.)  T.  G.  Rooper. 
(25  cents.) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

The  more  different  kinds  of  things  a  child  gets  to  know  by 
thus  treating  them  and  handling  them,  the  more  confident 
grows  his  sense  of  kinship  with  the  world  in  which  he  lives. 
An  unsympathetic  adult  will  wonder  at  the  fascinated  hours 
which  a  child  will  spend  in  putting  his  blocks  together  and 
rearranging  them.  But  the  wise  education  takes  the  tide  at 
the  flood,  and  from  the  kindergarten  upward  devotes  the  first 
years  of  education  to  training  in  construction  and  to  object- 
teaching.  I  need  not  recapitulate  here  what  I  said  awhile 
back  about  the  superiority  of  the  objective  and  experimental 
methods.  They  occupy  the  pupil  in  a  way  most  congruous  with 
the  spontaneous  interests  of  his  age.  They  absorb  him,  and 
leave  impressions  durable  and  profound.  Compared  with  the 
youth  taught  by  these  methods,  one  brought  up  exclusively  by 
books  carries  through  life  a  certain  remoteness  from  reality; 
he  stands,  as  it  were,  out  of  the  pale,  and  feels  that  he  stands 
so;  and  often  suffers  a  kind  of  melancholy  from  which  he 
might  have  been  rescued  by  a  more  real  education.  Talks  to 
Teachers.  James,  pp.  59-60. 

The  teacher  ought  always  to  impress  the  class  through  as 
many  sensible  channels  as  he  can.  Talk  and  write  on  the 
blackboard,  permit  the  pupils  to  talk,  and  make  them  write 
and  draw;  exhibit  pictures,  plans  and  curves;  have  your  dia- 
grams colored  differently  in  their  various  parts,  etc.,  and  out 
of  the  whole  variety  of  impressions  the  individual  child  will 


48      THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

find  the  most  lasting  ones  for  himself.  Talks  to  Teachers. 
James,  p.  139. 

Very  often  the  teacher  must  introduce  ideas  into  the  mind 
of  the  pupil,  not  so  much  for  their  immediate  importance  as 
for  the  use  to  be  made  of  them  at  future  lessons.  There  is 
no  greater  charm  for  any  one  than  to  find  that  a  certain  fact 
known  in  one  connection,  suddenly  becomes  to  be  of  use  in  an 
entirely  new  way.  To  maintain  interest  each  new  lesson 
should  be  impressed  upon  the  background  framed  by  all  that 
has  gone  before.  Primer  on  Teaching.  Adams,  pp.  37-38. 

Another  problem  in  grafting  interest  is  presented  by  the 
mother  of  a  boy  of  twelve,  who,  she  says,  "cares  for  nothing 
but  horses.  He  will  not  read,  nor  listen  to  reading."  According 
to  the  principle  of  "grafting"  the  solution  is  simply  to  begin 
with  some  book  about  horses.  Even  so  badly  written  a  story 
as  Black  Beauty  may  serve  as  a  stepping  stone.  Then  per- 
haps Kipling's  story — The  Maltese  Cat — of  the  horses  who 
really  played  a  polo  game,  and  that  other  horse  story  in  The 
Day's  Work,  A  'Walking  Delegate.  Then  The  Bell  of  Atri,  by 
Longfellow,  and  the  story  of  Pegasus  in  Hawthorne's  Wonder 
Book.  By  that  time,  and  even  much  earlier,  the  boy  will  easily 
be  led  to  books  of  exploration,  and  books  about  strange  people; 
and  then,  before  you  know  it,  your  boy  is  interested  in  his- 
tory. The  Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching.  DuBois,  p.  80. 

What  does  the  child  care  about  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes 
or  the  repairing  of  the  temple,  or  the  woes  upon  the  Phari- 
sees? Primarily  nothing.  These  topics  are  as  foreign  to  his 
thought  as  the  problem  of  evil  or  the  law  of  the  correlation  of 
forces.  His  only  possible  interest  must  come  through  associa- 
tion. If  he  has  revolted  from  authority  at  home  or  in  school, 
if  the  meeting-house  in  his  village  has  been  extensively  re- 
paired within  his  memory,  a  wise  teacher  may  be  able  to  ex- 
cite his  interest  in  similar  experiences  of  people  long  ago.  The 
boy  may  be  led  from  his  quarrel  with  his  companions  as  to  who 
should  be  president  of  the  boys'  club,  to  that  of  the  disciples 
as  to  who  should  be  first  in  the  kingdom  of  God;  and  from 
the  effects  of  wild  companions  upon  himself  to  the  effects  of 
similar  companions  upon  Rehoboam,  the  son  of  Solomon. 
The  Blackboard  in  Sunday-school.  Bailey,  pp.  29-30. 


MEMORY— IMAGINATION  49 


VET.    MEMOKY  — IMAGINATION 

I.      MEMORY 

1.  The  Office  and  Development  of  Memory.    White  de- 
fines  memory   as   "the  power  of  the   soul  to  represent 
(re-present)  and  re-know  objects  previously  known  or  ex- 
perienced." There  are  three  elements  in  this  definition,  the 
retaining  of  that  which  has  passed  through  the  mind,  the 
reproduction  of  it,  and  the  recognition  of  it.     Conscious- 
ness has  to  do  with  the  present,  memory  with  the  past. 
Without  consciousness  we  should  have  no  to-day,  without 
memory  no  yesterday.    Locke  said  that  "without  memory 
man  is  a  perpetual  infant." 

The  memory  receives  a  marked  impulse  at  the  age  of  six 
to  eight,  and  grows  notably  from  that  time  to  the  age  of 
twelve  or  fourteen.  This,  therefore,  is  the  memorizing  age. 
Teachers  who  have  students  of  twelve  and  upwards  in  their 
classes  are  apt  to  find  them  with  memories  vigorous  and 
retentive. 

Memory  is  of  two  kinds,  verbal  and  logical,  according  as 
that  which  is  recalled  is  in  the  exact  words  or  in  the  asso- 
ciation of  ideas.  An  accurate  verbal  memory  is  oftentimes 
associated  with  inferior  mentality,  and  is  not  the  type  to  be-; 
cultivated  with  the  greatest  assiduity. 

2.  The  Laws  of  Memory.    While  it  has  been  claimed  that 
the  natural  general  retentiveness  of  the  mind  cannot  be 
improved,  in  other  words,  that  the  original  endowment  of 
the  memory  cannot  be  enlarged,  there  are  certain  laws  for 
the  use  of  such  powers  of  memory  as  have  been  vouchsafed 


50  THE    TEACHING    OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

to  us  that  may  make  them  more  effective  than  they  would 
otherwise  be.    These  may  be  reduced  to  three : 

(1)  Interest  and  Attention.    It  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance in  order  to  retention  that  the  first  impressions  should 
be  strong  and  clear-cut.     That  which  comes  to  the  mind 
with  the  greatest  vigor  and  clarity  at  first  will  be  retained 
and  reproduced  most  easily.    So  it  has  been  found  of  ad- 
vantage in  order  to  memorize  words  that  they  should  be 
repeated  articulately.    In  this  process  attention  is  found  to 
be  most  helpful,  not  compelled  attention,  but  the  attention 
growing  out  of  interest.    It  is  found  that  men  usually  have 
retentive  memories  in  the  things  that  are  concerned  with 
their  daily  pursuits.    Their  vital  interest  in  these  things 
insures  retention.    It  is  truly  said  that,  "The  art  of  memory 
is  the  art  of  paying  attention."    Joseph  Cook  put  it  in  an- 
other way  when  he  said  that  attention  is  the  mother  of 
memory  and  interest  the  mother  of  attention,  and  to  secure 
memory  one  must  secure  both  her  mother  and  her  grand- 
mother. 

(2)  Repetition.    Another  reason  why  we  remember  the 
things  that  have  to  do  with  our  daily  pursuits  is  that  we  are 
constantly  repeating  them.     Repetition  should  be  varied. 
That  which  has  been  presented  verbally  should  be  repeated 
with  the  aid  of  the  blackboard.    That  which  has  been  pre- 
sented to  the  mind  through  the  ear  should  be  presented 
again  through  the  eye,  and  again,  if  possible,  through  the 
touch,  so  that  the  impression  may  be  made  upon  the  mind 
through  as  many  senses  as  possible.    The  central  thought 
of  the  lesson  should  be  repeated,  each  time  in  some  new 
aspect.    For  the  same  reason  frequent  reviews  are  necessary. 

(3)  Association.     Coleridge  mentions  as  three  memory 
arts  for  students,  sound  logic,  healthy  digestion  and  a  clear 
conscience.    Those  things  which  are  most  closely  connected 
are  most  easily  remembered.    They  may  be  connected  by 
continuity,  by  similarity,  as  sign  and  thing  signified,  or  as 


MEMORY— IMAGINATION  51 

cause  and  effect.  The  memory  seems  to  call  for  hooks  on 
which  it  may  hang  appropriate  subjects  of  knowledge,  and 
here,  as  in  the  household  and  office  economy,  the  rule  is 
found  effective  that  there  should  be  a  place  for  everything 
and  everything  in  its  place.  James  says  that  the  art  of 
remembering  is  the  art  of  thinking,  and  adds  that  the  con- 
necting is  the  thinking.  Dr.  Pick  urges  that  when  we  wish 
to  fix  a  new  thing  in  either  our  own  mind  or  a  pupil's,  our 
conscious  effort  should  not  be  so  much  to  impress  and  re- 
tain as  to  connect  it  with  something  else  already  there. 

3.  Memory  and  Character.    It  has  been  said  that  nothing 
is  ever  wholly  forgotten.     Coleridge  mentions  the  case  of 
an  ignorant  woman  who  when  stricken  down  with  a  fever, 
in  her  delirium,  gave  utterance  to  Hebrew  and  Greek  pas- 
sages.   It  was  afterward  explained  that  the  woman  had  once 
been  a  servant  in  the  family  of  a  clergyman  whose  habit  it 
had  been  to  read  the  Scriptures  aloud  in  the  original  He- 
brew and  Greek.    James  tells  us  that  "Prof.  Ebbinghaus's 
experiments  show  that  things  which  we  are  quite  unable 
definitely  to  recall  have  nevertheless  impressed  themselves 
in  some  way  upon  the  structure  of  the  mind.    We  are  dif- 
ferent for  having  once  learned  them.     The  resistances  in 
our  systems  of  brain  paths  are  altered."    It  cannot  be  too 
strongly  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the  student  that  every- 
thing that  he  takes  into  his  mind  contributes  to  its  making 
or  marring,  and  that,  although  we  may  not  be  aware  of  it 
at  the  time  of  its  reception,  that  which  is  received  makes  its 
impress  upon  the  mind  and  so  on  the  character  and  will 
inevitably  develop  itself  in  later  life.    "Take  heed  what  ye 
hear."   (Mark  4 :  24.)   "Thy  word  have  I  hid  in  mine  heart 
that  I  might  not  sin  against  thee."    (Ps.  119 :  11.) 

4.  Memorizing  of  Scriptures.    So  much  protest  has  been 
entered  against  the  memorizing  by  children  of  passages  of 
Scripture  the  meaning  of  which  is  not  clear  to  them,  that 
we  are  in  danger  of  going  to  the  opposite  extreme  and  the 


52  THE    TEACHING    OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

treasuring  of  the  great  scriptural  landmarks  in  the  memory 
is  to  a  considerable  extent  ignored.  The  student  is  not  shut 
up,  however,  to  memorizing  Scriptures  with  whose  truths 
he  is  not  familiar.  If  the  Twenty-third  Psalm  may  not  be 
regarded  as  a  picture  of  the  experience  of  the  young,  the 
First  Psalm  must  certainly  have  application  to  the  life  of 
the  boy  and  the  young  man.  The  Ten  Commandments  and 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  many  other  utterances  of  Jesus,  may 
be  brought  within  the  range  of  the  memory  age  and  should 
be  added  to  the  storehouse  which  the  child  is  filling  for 
future  use.  Ruskin  said  that  the  twenty-six  chapters  of  the 
Bible  he  learned  from  his  mother  constituted  the  most  val- 
uable part  of  his  education.  Here  again  the  laws  for  the 
government  of  the  memory  may  be  effectively  employed. 
For  example,  in  the  First  Psalm,  to  which  reference  has 
been  made,  the  attention  of  the  student  might  be  called  to 
the  fact  that  there  is  a  progression  in  the  course  of  the 
wicked  man  so  that  at  first  he  walks,  then  stands  and  finally 
sits  among  objectionable  companions,  and  that  there  is  also 
a  progression  in  the  wickedness  of  those  with  whom  he 
associates  who  are  first  the  ungodly  and  then  sinners  and 
finally  the  scornful. 

II.      IMAGINATION 

1.  The  Office  and  Development  of  Imagination.  White 
defines  the  imagination  as  "the  power  of  the  mind  to  repre- 
sent and  modify  or  recombine  objects  previously  known." 
Imagination  is  the  picture-forming  power  of  the  mind.  We 
need  not  confuse  the  work  of  the  memory  and  that  of  the 
imagination  as  is  sometimes  done.  The  memory  reproduces, 
the  imagination  modifies,  combines,  creates,  but  always 
works  on  the  material  which  is  furnished  to  it  by  the 
memory. 

Imagination  manifests  itself  at  an  early  age,  sometimes 
as  early  as  two  years,  and  is  very  marked  at  three  or  four. 


MEMORY— IMAGINATION  53 

As  with  memory  there  seems  to  be  an  accession  of  imag- 
inative power  at  six  or  eight,  and  the  teacher  of  students 
of  twelve  and  over,  while  he  will  discover  the  imagination 
to  be  less  wayward  than  at  an  earlier  period,  will  find  it 
vigorous  and  active  and  a  helpful  ally  in  the  processes  of 
development. 

Imagination  has  an  important  place  in  the  daily  occupa- 
tions of  men  no  matter  what  those  occupations  may  be. 
"There  is  no  occupation  in  life,"  says  Roark,  "which  may 
not  be  the  better  followed  with  the  aid  of  imagination.  The 
ditch  digger  who  can  see  the  effect  of  his  next  blow  before  it 
is  struck ;  the  bricklayer  who  can  see  the  next  brick  in  posi- 
tion before  it  is  placed :  the  blacksmith  who  can  shape  the 
bar  to  the  ideal  which  he  projects  upon  the  anvil — these  do 
far  better  work  than  those  who  can  see  nothing  but  their 
memory  images  or  the  things  actually  before  them."  Prof. 
Johnson  shows  how  imagination  is  necessary  in  the  work 
of  the  soldier,  of  the  statesman,  and  of  the  historian.  Tyn- 
dall,  too,  speaks  of  a  "scientific  imagination,"  which  implies 
the  ability  to  form  reasonable  hypotheses  which  afterward 
are  subjected  to  tests  and  verification. 

2.  The  Imagination  and  Bible  Study.  Prof.  Johnson  has 
written  a  book  which  he  has  entitled  "The  Religious  Uses  of 
the  Imagination."  Dr.  Newell  Dwight  Hillis  has  a  chapter 
in  one  of  his  books  on  "The  Imagination  as  the  Architect  of 
Manhood."  Horace  Bushnell  once  wrote  an  article  bearing 
the  title  "The  Gospel  a  Gift  to  the  Imagination."  The  im- 
agination, then,  has  a  very  real  place  in  moral  and  spiritual 
development.  "Where  there  is  no  vision  the  people  perish." 
More  specifically,  it  is  a  help  in  the  effective  interpretation 
of  the  Bible  in  terms  of  to-day.  Lange,  in  his  book  on  Ap- 
perception, says  that  "when  a  child  transports  himself 
into  the  unknown  and  distant  region  of  Bible  history,  there 
come  to  the  help  of  the  new  names  certain  familiar  and 
similar  notions."  This  is  not  only  a  characteristic  of  child- 


54  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

hood,  but  belongs  to  the  great  prophets  of  the  faith,  men 
who  with  the  aid  of  the  imagination  have  brought  the  scenes 
of  the  Bible  into  the  life  of  to-day  and  interpreted  the  his- 
torical past  in  modern  terms.  Dwight  L.  Moody  was  force- 
ful not  only  by  reason  of  his  great  faith,  but  also  because 
of  his  imagination.  Henry  Drummond  says  that  imagina- 
tion is  the  primary  faculty  of  the  new  evangelism.  George 
J.  Romanes  said  very  truly  that  "to  believe  necessitates  a 
spiritual  use  of  the  imagination."  It  should  be  noted  also 
that  the  parables  of  Jesus  are  a  creation  of  the  imagination. 
Educators  have  recognized  geography  and  history,  in- 
cluding biography,  as  studies  that  are  especially  helpful  to 
the  imagination,  and  in  which  imagination  may  have  the 
largest  play.  Roark  says  again:  "To  get  anything  out  of 
histor}r,  the  student  must  be  able  to  put  himself  back  into 
the  time  of  which  he  reads — must  see  the  people,  their 
modes  of  dress,  the  circumstances  of  their  daily  life ;  must 
feel  their  emotions  and  desires,  their  hopes  and  ambitions ; 
must  understand  their  arts  and  sciences ;  must  make  himself 
one  of  them — before  he  can  form  any  adequate  idea  of 
events  or  the  relations  and  causes  of  events  in  any  given 
period.  Young  people  can  image  these  things  with  won- 
derful facility  and  fidelity,  and  will  do  so  if  only  the  teacher 
in  oral  lessons,  or  text-book  drill,  will  supply  the  stim- 
ulus of  interest,  and  set  the  material  before  the  creative 
faculty  in  the  right  way.  Still  more  is  this  true  in  the 
study  of  biography,  for  in  this  there  is  the  powerful  at- 
tractiveness of  personality."  Students  should  be  encour- 
aged to  transport  themselves  in  imagination  into  the 
midst  of  the  events  recorded  in  the  sacred  history.  They 
should  be  led  to  clothe  the  characters  of  the  Bible  with  a 
new  life  and  find  themselves  in  familiar  touch  with  these 
great  personalities.  In  this  way  the  imagination  will  make 
its  contribution  to  character.  The  characters  of  the  Bible 
will  come  to  be  the  ideals  of  the  student,  "and  ideals  are  the 


MEMORY— IMAGINATION  55 

standards  which  imagination  forms  and  sets  before  us 
as  the  measures  of  our  conduct."  Thus  unconsciously  will 
the  student  be  led  to  make  the  best  characters  of  the  Bible 
his  ideals  and  to  formulate  his  life  according  to  their 
models. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology.    Sully,  pp.  207-304. 

^Psychology  in  Education.    Roark,  pp.  79-97,  109-117. 

The  Elements  of  Pedagogy.    White,  pp.  51-58. 

*Talks  to  Teachers.     James,  pp.  116-143. 

Principles  of  Religious  Education.    Hodges,  pp.  86-87. 

Memory  Work  in  Character  Forming.  Walter  L.  Harvey  in 
Proceedings  of  the  Religious  Education  Association.  Vol.  II., 
pp.  31-37.  ($2.00.) 

Religious  Uses  of  the  Imagination.    E.  H.  Johnson.     ($1.00.) 

A  Man's  Value  to  Society.    Hillis,  pp.  123-162.     ($1.25.) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

It  is  only  classified  knowledge — that  is,  knowledge  placed 
in  its  real  relations — that  can  be  most  effectively  retained 
and  produced  for  use.  Unclassified  knowledge  is  almost  use- 
less. Some  minds  seem  to  be  mere  junk-shops  of  knowledge, 
filled  with  fragments  and  scraps  of  learning,  tumbled  together 
as  they  came,  with  no  orderliness  or  method  in  their  arrange- 
ment. Others  are  like  a  well-arranged,  well-kept  museum, 
where  everything  is  properly  named  and  classified,  and  where 
everything  can  be  got  without  delay  and  with  small  effort. 
Psychology  in  Education.  Roark,  p.  92. 

The  excesses  of  old-fashioned  verbal  memorizing,  and  the 
immense  advantages  of  object-teaching  in  the  earlier  stages  of 
culture,  have  perhaps  led  those  who  philosophize  about  teach- 
ing to  an  unduly  strong  reaction;  and  learning  things  by 
heart  is  now  probably  too  much  despised.  For,  when  all  is 
said  and  done,  the  fact  remains  that  verbal  material  is,  on 
the  whole,  the  handiest  and  most  useful  material  in  which 
thinking  can  be  carried  on.  *  *  *  I  should  say,  therefore, 
that  constant  exercise  in  verbal  memorizing  must  still  be  an 
indispensable  feature  in  all  sound  education.  Nothing  is  more 
deplorable  than  that  inarticulate  and  helpless  sort  of  mind 
that  is  reminded  by  everything  of  some  quotation,  case,  or 
anecdote,  which  it  cannot  now  exactly  recollect.  Nothing,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  more  convenient  to  its  possessor  or  more  de- 
lightful to  his  comrades,  than  a  mind  able,  in  telling  a  story, 
to  give  the  exact  words  of  the  dialogue  or  to  furnish  a  quota- 
tion accurate  and  complete.  Talks  to  Teachers.  James,  pp. 
131-132. 

It  is  probable  that  modern  revolt  from  the  tyranny  of  words 
has  led  us  to  undervalue  the  legitimate  service  of  language  in 


56  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

learning.  In  many  cases,  the  embodiment  of  knowledge  in 
precise  verbal  form  is  clearly  of  the  highest  consequence. 
This  applies  to  such  things  as  definitions  and  rules  where  the 
words  are  carefully  selected  for  a  special  purpose  and  cannot 
be  altered,  and  also  to  poetry  and  passages  of  prose  where  the 
literary  form  is  an  element  of  value.  Even  in  learning  such 
a  subject  as  history  the  verbal  memory  has  its  rightful  part. 
What  the  teacher  has  to  take  care  of  is  that  he  uses  the  child's 
verbal  memory  only  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  retention  of  ideas 
after  these  have  been  made  clear  and  duly  connected  with  one 
another,  and  never  as  a  substitute  for  this,  and  that  his  pupil 
is  not  slavishly  dependent  on  the  particular  words  of 
the  lesson  or  the  textbook,  but  is  able  to  put  his  knowledge 
into  other  forms  when  required  to  do  so.  That  is  to  say, 
learning  by  heart  is  permissible  if  it  does  not  degenerate  into 
an  unintelligent  learning  by  rote.  The  Teacher's  Handbook  of 
Psychology.  Sully,  pp.  258-259. 

The  classes  of  history  textbooks  intended  for  use  in  classes 
below  the  college  freshman  should  contain  a  good  deal  of 
biography  and  should  group  events  about  the  lives  and  deeds 
of  eminent  men  and  women.  And  even  all  the  way  through 
the  college  or  university  course,  in  other  studies,  as  well  as  in 
history  also,  it  is  well  to  give  imagination  this  element  of  the 
personal  about  which  to  group  many  of  its  combinations.  The 
history  of  the  struggles  and  achievements  of  great  mathemati- 
cians, chemists,  physicists,  serves  to  intensify  the  creative 
power  of  other  minds.  It  is  mainly  through  its  exercise  in 
literature,  history  and  biography,  that  imagination  builds  the 
moral  character.  In  this  building  it  has  its  highest  function. 
Psychology  in  Education.  Roark,  p.  215. 

Parents  and  teachers  should  set  before  boys  and  girls  the 
best  characters  in  literature,  history,  and  biography;  not  in 
any  goody-goody  way,  not  with  too  much  stress  upon  the  de- 
sirability of  imitating  them,  but  in  a  frank,  cordial,  rational 
way.  Men  and  women  cannot  afford  to  do  otherwise  with 
themselves.  What  the  imagination  habitually  contemplates, 
that  will  it  form  into  the  ideals  in  whose  image  we  make  our- 
selves.  Psychology  in  Education.  Roark,  p.  216. 


FEELINGS— WILL  57 


IX.    FEELINGS —  WILL 

I.      FEELINGS 

The  mind  has  three  functions  designated  respectively  as 
knowing,  feeling  and  willing.  We  have  considered  soma 
of  the  powers  that  are  concerned  in  the  act  of  knowing: 
attention,  perception,  memory,  imagination.  We  now  turn 
to  the  feelings.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these 
powers  are  not  separated  to  such  an  extent  as  the  various 
designations  of  them  would  seem  to  indicate.  This  division 
of  the  powers  of  the  mind  is  to  accommodate  our  own 
thought  about  them.  As  a  fact  there  are  few  processes 
of  the  mind  in  which  attention,  perception,  memory  and 
imagination  are  not  all  involved. 

1.  Definition  and  Classification.  Perhaps  the  simplest 
definition  of  feelings  is  that  furnished  by  Koark  in  which 
he  describes  them  as  "mental  states  of  pleasure  and  pain." 
The  following  classification  of  the  feelings  has  been  tab- 
ulated from  Sully's  description  of  them  in  his  Handbook 
of  Psychology  (pp.  407-507),  the  feelings  noted  in  paren- 
theses being  additions  to  the  author's  classification : 

(1)  Bodily  feelings — sense  feelings: 

a.  Organic,  as  feeling  warmth  and  cold. 
&.  Special   sense,   as   feeling   from   touching  objects, 
soft  and  smooth,  or  hard  and  rough. 

(2)  Mental  feelings — emotions: 

a.  Instinctive  or  egoistic — fear,  anger,  rivalry,  love 
of  activity,  of  approbation  (envy,  jealousy,  hate, 
shame,  pride,  ambition). 


58  THE    TEACHING   OP    BIBLE    CLASSES 

&.  Social — love,  sympathy    (imitativeness,  pity,  phi- 
lanthropy, patriotism). 
c.  Sentiments — 

(a)  Intellectual — Wonder,   curiosity.     Object, 

truth. 

(&)  ^Esthetic — Taste.    Object,  the  beautiful. 
(c)  Moral — Reverence  for  duty  and  moral  law. 
Object,  moral  goodness. 

2.  "The  Premiership  of  the  Feelings."  This  is  the  phrase 
of  Patterson  DuBois  to  describe  the  important  place  feel- 
ings hold  in  our  mental  processes  and  in  the  economy  of 
the  world.    "Feeling,"  he  says,  "rules  the  world.    It  was 
not  the  intellectual  convictions  alone  of  Paul,  Savonarola, 
Luther,  Knox,  Bunyan,  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  Wilberforce, 
Washington,  Mrs.  Stowe,  Whittier  or  Lincoln,  that  wrought 
such  reformations,  but  rather  their  ardor,  their  zeal,  cour- 
age, sympathy,  their  hates  and  loves,  their  hopes  and  fears 
— in  short,  those  stirrings  of  the  soul  which  stand  imme- 
diately behind  the  will  as  goads  and  credentials  to  action." 

The  feelings  are  oftentimes  not  given  their  due  place 
because  the  mention  of  the  name  brings  to  the  thought 
those  feelings  which  when  not  controlled  result  in  harm, 
as  anger,  envy,  jealousy  and  hate.  A  glance  at  the  cate- 
gory of  feelings  given  above,  however,  will  convince  one 
as  to  the  large  place  the  feelings  have  in  all  helpful  rela- 
tions. 

3.  Direction.    The  feelings  should  be  kept  under  control 
because  in  full  sway  they  overpower  and  subdue  the  func- 
tion of  knowing.    Perception,  memory,  judgment,  are  flung 
to  the  winds  when  the  feelings  are  in  the  mastery.    By  the 
control  of  the  feelings  it  is  not  intended  that  they  should 
be  repressed.     Such  feelings  as  fear,  anger,  the  love  of 
activity,  pride  and  ambition,  have  their  proper  place.    In- 
deed it  would  not  be  difficult  to  show  that  nearly  all  feel- 
ings have  their  good  as  well  as  their  evil  aspects.    It  is  said 


FEELINGS— WILL  59 

of  the  Puritans  that  they  over-emphasized  the  intellect,  and 
under-emphasized  the  feelings,  and  one  of  the  arraignments 
of  their  descendants  is  that  they  have  to  too  large  an  extent 
repressed  the  emotional  life.  Sully  truly  says  that  the 
teacher  "should  bear  in  mind  that  the  frequent  wounding  of 
any  feeling  is  apt  to  deaden  it.  A  boy  who  never  gets  recog- 
nition when  he  feels  that  he  deserves  it  tends  to  grow 
indifferent  to  it;  or,  if  he  be  unusually  sensitive,  an  even 
worse  result  may  ensue  in  the  shape  of  a  secret  feeling 
of  resentment  at  injustice." 

The  feelings  should  be  wisely  directed  towards  right  con- 
duct. The  awakening  of  emotions  which  do  not  find  an 
immediate  outlet  into  channels  of  helpful  activity  will  re- 
act unfavorably  upon  the  person  in  whom  the  emotions  are 
produced.  Sully  says  "The  worth  of  the  social  and  moral 
feelings  resides  in  their  organic  attachment  as  motives 
to  definite  lines  of  conduct."  Touching  stories  descriptive 
of  human  need  and  suffering  should  therefore  be  sparingly 
used  except  as  they  point  the  way  to  some  specific  case  of 
need  or  suffering  which  may  be  relieved.  The  stirring  of  the 
emotions  in  evangelistic  meetings  unless  it  be  followed  by 
personal  intercourse  with  the  person  displaying  such  emo- 
tion and. faithful  following  up  until  feeling  results  in  action 
and  action  in  conduct,  is  detrimental  rather  than  helpful. 

4.  Development.  The  feelings  call  for  wise  development : 
fear  in  the  apprehension  of  that  which  injures  the  life, 
anger  in  the  denunciation  of  that  which  is  wrong,  pride  in 
elation  over  that  which  contributes  to  character,  ambition 
in  the  direction  of  the  highest  and  best  things.  Systematic 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  cultivation  of  the  feelings. 
Charles  Darwin  tells  us  in  his  Autobiography  how  he  failed 
to  develop  the  sentimental  side  of  his  life,  and  came  to  dis- 
like music  and  poetry.  It  would  be  well  for  those  whose 
occupations  call  for  the  almost  exclusive  use  of  the  powers 
of  sensation,  perception  or  judgment  to  read  poetry  system- 


60  THE    TEACHING   OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

atically.  The  higher  emotions  should  be  cultivated  espe- 
cially in  the  development  of  the  religious  life.  Devotional 
books  should  have  a  larger  place  in  the  reading  of  Christian 
people.  The  Psalms  which  are  pre-eminently  the  expression 
of  religious  feelings  constitute  the  most  valuable  reading 
for  this  purpose. 

5.  Use  of  the  Feelings  in  Teaching.  The  feelings  may  be 
utilized  by  the  teacher  in  the  work  of  instruction  to  great 
advantage.  There  may  be  generated  in  the  student  a  gen- 
erous spirit  of  rivalry  to  surpass  his  fellows  in  the  gaining 
of  knowledge;  there  may  be  stirred  within  him  emulation 
of  the  best  points  in  the  character  and  conduct  of  those 
about  him ;  curiosity  may  well  be  excited  in  order  to  arouse 
interest  in  the  subject  in  hand;  wonder  may  be  aroused 
which  will  lead  to  the  pursuit  of  further  knowledge  (Max 
Muller  says  that  "all  science  begins  and  ends  in  wonder") ; 
a  sense  of  shame  over  failure  to  accomplish,  and  of  pride 
over  accomplishment,  may  be  appealed  to ;  a  spirit  of  esprit 
de  corps  which  shall  result  in  a  desire  to  have  the  class 
or  school  stand  well  may  be  stimulated;  admiration  for 
noble  characters  studied  and  the  susceptibility  to  influences 
of  personality  may  be  utilized.  "Would  you  stir  the  emo- 
tion or  heroism  of  some  youth,"  says  Dr.  Hillis,  "ply  him 
with  great  epochs  and  hours  in  the  life  of  Lincoln  or  the 
biography  of  Gladstone.  Stories  of  courage  stir  the  emotion 
of  courage.  Tales  of  heroism  arouse  the  feelings  that  are 
heroic."  For  this  reason  the  biography  of  the  Bible  con- 
stitutes a  most  desirable  source  of  instruction  for  those 
whose  characters  are  to  be  developed  and  conduct  influ- 
enced. The  grandeur  of  the  character  of  Moses,  the  courage 
of  David,  the  heroism  of  Paul,  the  manliness  of  Christ,  will 
stir  feelings  of  admiration  and  emulation  which  cannot  but 
result  in  nobler  character  and  improved  conduct. 


FEELINGS— WILL  61 


II.      THE  WILL 

1.  Koark  defines  the  will  as  the  power  of  the  mind  to  de- 
termine and  execute.    The  will  should  be  respected.    It  is 
the  sovereign  power  of  the  mind.     The  breaking  of  the 
child's  will  has  been  recommended.    John  Wesley  wrote: 
"Break  your  child's  will  in  order  that  it  may  not  perish. 
Break  its  will  as  soon  as  it  can  speak  plainly — or  even  before 
it  can  speak  at  all.    It  should  be  forced  to  do  as  it  is  told 
even  if  you  have  to  whip  it  ten  times  running.    Break  its 
will  in  order  that  its  soul  may  live."    This  treatment  is  as 
pernicious  as  the  repression  of  the  feelings,  and  the  wise 
course,  as  in  the  case  of  the  feelings,  is  in  the  direction  of 
the  will  rather  than  in  its  repression.    Henry  Clay  Trum- 
bull  truly  says  that  a  broken  will  is  worth  as  much  in  its 
sphere  as  a  broken  bow.    Indeed,  the  development  of  char- 
acter means  that  the  will  shall  have  as  wide  a  latitude  as  it 
is  possible  to  give  to  it.     This  involves  risk  and  danger, 
but  in  the  interests  of  personality  and  character  there  is  no 
other  course. 

2.  The  will  should  be  directed.     The  training  and  de- 
velopment of  the  will  mean  the  training  and  development  of 
all  conscious  forces  of  mind  so  that  the  movement  in  re- 
sponse to  sensations  and  suggestions  may  naturally  be  in 
the  right  direction.    To  this  end  the  function  of  knowing 
should  be  developed  so  that  from  the  wider  range  of  choices 
presented  the  most  helpful  selection  may  be  made.    McAl- 
lister says  "that  we  find  that  the  development  of  the  will 
consists  in  attaining  knowledge — that  is,  in  securing  a  stock 
of  ideas,  in  consistently  holding  on  to  right  ideas  no  matter 
how  unpleasant,  and  in  acquiring  habits  of  acting  upon 
these  definite  ideas  which  we  call  right.    Let  us  not  forget 
that  preaching,  talking  about  being  good,  soon  becomes  a 
bore.    Let  us  seize  upon  practical  opportunities  and  lead 


62  THE    TEACHING   OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

the  pupils  not  only  to  feel  and  to  think,  but  to  do."  This 
is  the  philosophy  of  the  title  of  the  famous  sermon  by  Dr. 
Chalmers  on  "The  Expulsive  Power  of  a  New  Affection/' 
the  new  interest  and  the  new  desire  outweighing  and  there- 
fore checking  the  old  interest  and  desire. 

3.  The  will  has  to  do  with  character.  It  has  been  well 
said  that  "character  may  be  defined  as  the  sum  of  our 
choices."  Character  is  not  only  indicated  by  the  kind  of 
choices  that  we  make,  but  it  is  also  affected  by  those  choices. 
The  character  may  be  developed  by  the  choosing  of  the 
more  difficult  course  when  two  courses  of  action  are  pre- 
sented for  selection.  It  was  in  this  way  that  the  character 
of  Moses  was  formed  who  chose  affliction  with  his  own 
people  rather  than  the  luxury  of  the  Egyptian  palace. 

It  is  not  according  to  the  economy  of  God  that  men 
should  be  forced  into  His  kingdom.  The  Maker  of  the  will 
respects  the  will,  and  offers  a  choice  to  those  whom  He 
invites  into  His  service.  "I  have  set  before  you  life  and 
death,  blessing  and  cursing :  therefore  choose  life  that  both 
you  and  thy  seed  may  live :  That  thou  mayest  love  the  Lord 
thy  God,  and  that  thou  mayest  cleave  unto  Him :  for  He  is 
thy  life  and  the  length  of  thy  days."  (Deut.  30:19,  20.) 

"The  problem  of  personal  choice,"  says  Coe,  "does  not 
normally  grow  acute  until  the  beginning  or  middle  of  ado- 
lescence ;  that  is,  not  much  before  the  years  from  twelve  to 
fifteen,  though  it  may  rise  in  minor  and  gradually  increas- 
ing degree  before  that  age."  This  is  the  age  then  when 
special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  deliberate  choices. 
We  have  found  in  the  study  of  adolescence  that  it  is  during 
the  latter  part  of  this  period  that  the  youth  is  most  likely 
to  make  the  supreme  choice  in  the  selection  of  the  spiritual 
principles  and  ideals  of  his  life.  Every  effort  should  there- 
fore be  made  at  this  time  to  give  sway  to  the  trend  of  his 
nature  in  this  direction,  and  to  check  those  forces  which 
would  stand  in  the  way  of  his  best  choice. 


FEELINGS— WILL  63 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 
THE  FEELINGS. 

Teacher's  Hand  Book  of  Psychology.    Sully,  pp.  407-507. 

Psychology  in  Education.   Roark,  pp.  118-147. 

Talks  to  Teachers.    James,  pp.  45-63. 

*The  Natural  Way.    Patterson  DuBois,  pp.  69-173. 

*Imago  Christi.    James  Stalker,  pp.  300-313.     ($1.50.) 

Mistakes  in  Teaching.    James  L.  Hughes,  pp.  105-106.     (50 
cents.) 
THE  WILL. 

Teacher's  Hand  Book  of  Psychology.    Sully,  pp.  508-571. 

Psychology  in  Education.    Roark,  pp.  150-154,  217-228. 

Talks  to  Teachers.    James,  pp.  169-196. 

The  Natural  Way.    Patterson  DuBois,  pp.  278-314. 

Education  in  Religion  and  Morals.    Coe,  pp.  187-191. 

^Proceedings  Religious  Education  Association.  Cloyd  N.  Mc- 
Allister, Vol.  II.,  pp.  326-329. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

Mere  emotion  that  evaporates  without  a  deed  is  weakening. 
Hence  the  harm  of  crying  at  the  theatre  and  "with  no  lan- 
guage but  a  cry."  Any  working  of  the  feelings  without  op- 
portunity to  act  is  likely  to  result  in  impairment.  It  produces 
a  soft  sentimentality.  Hence  the  common  outcry  against 
emotionalism.  The  Natural  Way.  DuBois,  p.  170. 

The  teacher  will  endeavor  by  every  legitimate  means  to  in- 
duce those  for  whom  he  labors  to  express  every  newly  aroused 
religious  emotion  and  purpose  in  some  definite  act  which  will 
tend  to  make  it  of  permanent  moral  effect.  To  arouse  emo- 
tion which  produces  no  effect  on  conduct  is  a  serious  peda- 
gogical mistake.  Principles  and  Ideals  for  the  Sunday-school. 
Burton  and  Mathews,  p.  103. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  we  ought  not  to  think  too  much 
about  our  own  feelings,  dance  attendance  on  them,  or  use  them 
unduly  as  a  plea  and  a  motive.  A  friend  of  mine  used  to  say 
that  he  had  no  patience  with  people  who  are  always  getting 
their  feelings  hurt — that  is,  using  their  hurt  feelings  as  a 
line  of  defence  for  their  own  actions.  On  the  other  hand, 
our  best  success  in  life  depends  largely  upon  our  recognition 
of  the  feelings  of  others.  The  Natural  Way.  DuBois,  p.  96. 

It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  stir  the  emotions  of  impenitent 
scholars  by  any  earnest  appeals  without  giving  the  scholars 
thus  aroused  a  specific  and  an  immediate  opportunity  to  decide 
at  once  for  the  right.  If  scholars  are  moved  to  strong  feeling 
concerning  their  spiritual  condition  and  needs  without  being 
called  on  to  take  a  stand  at  once  on  the  side  of  duty,  they 
are  injured  rather  than  helped  through  the  involved  strain 
upon  their  feelings.  Teaching  and  Teachers.  Trumbull,  p. 
350. 

Darwin  says:    "Up  to  the  age  of  thirty  or  beyond  it,  poetry 


64  THE    TEACHING   OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

of  many  kinds  gave  me  great  pleasure;  and  even  as  a  school- 
boy I  took  intense  delight  in  Shakespeare,  especially  in  the 
historical  plays.  I  have  also  said  that  pictures  formerly  gave 
me  considerable,  and  music  very  great  delight.  But  now  for 
many  years  I  cannot  endure  to  read  a  line  of  poetry.  I  have 
tried  lately  to  read  Shakespeare  and  found  it  so  intolerably 
dull  that  it  nauseated  me.  I  have  also  almost  lost  my  taste 
for  pictures  or  music.  My  mind  seems  to  have  become  a  kind 
of  machine  for  grinding  general  laws  out  of  large  collections 
of  facts;  but  why  this  should  have  caused  the  atrophy  of  that 
part  of  the  brain  alone,  on  which  the  higher  tastes  depend,  I 
cannot  conceive.  *  *  *  If  I  had  to  live  my  life  again,  I  would 
have  made  a  rule  to  read  some  poetry  and  listen  to  some  music 
at  least  once  every  week;  for  perhaps  the  parts  of  my  brain 
now  atrophied  would  thus  have  been  kept  alive  through  use. 
The  loss  of  these  tastes  is  a  loss  of  happiness,  and  may  possi- 
bly be  injurious  to  the  intellect,  and  more  probably  to  the 
moral  character,  by  enfeebling  the  emotional  part  of  our 
nature."  Talks  to  Teachers.  James,  pp.  71-72. 

We  may  then  lay  it  down  for  certain  that  every  representa- 
tion of  a  movement  awakens  in  some  degree  the  actual  move- 
ment which  is  its  object;  and  awakens  it  in  a  maximum  de- 
gree whenever  it  is  not  kept  from  so  doing  by  an  antagonistic 
representation  present  simultaneously  to  the  mind.  The  ex- 
press flat,  or  act  of  mental  consent  to  the  movement,  comes 
in  when  the  neutralization  of  the  antagonistic  and  inhibitory 
idea  is  required.  But  that  there  is  no  express  fiat  needed 
when  the  conditions  are  simple,  the  reader  ought  now  to  be 
convinced.  Psychology  (Briefer  Course).  James,  p.  426. 

One  school  of  psychologists  would  have  us  believe  that  there 
IB  no  such  thing  as  will;  that  all  movements,  even  in  the 
adult,  are  due  to  reflex  action  or  to  the  direct  influence  of 
motor  ideas:  that  Is  when  we  think  of  some  movement  it  is 
desirable  to  make,  the  idea  stimulates  the  appropriate  motor 
nerves,  and  these,  discharging  into  the  requisite  muscles,  cause 
them  to  contract.  This  theory  "short-circuits"  the  current 
of  action,  as  an  electrician  might  say,  and  cuts  out  will  alto- 
gether. The  eye  is  stimulated  too  much  by  a  strong  light; 
the  painful  impulse  flows  Into  consciousness,  and  starts  an 
idea  of  lowering  the  window  blind;  this  idea  starts  the  mole- 
cules to  vibrating  in  the  motor  nerves  running  to  the  arm  and 
hand,  and  by  the  contraction  thus  caused  in  the  proper  muscles 
the  blind  is  lowered.  This  fairly  illustrates  the  materialistic 
explanation  of  will  action.  Psychology  in  Education.  Roark, 
pp.  161-152. 


HABIT  65 


X.    HABIT 

1.  Definition  and  description.  Habit  has  been  defined 
by  Roark  as  "that  condition  of  the  mind  or  body  which  is 
manifested  in  the  tendency  to  unconscious  repetition  of  acts 
or  states."  SulJy  says  of  habit  that  "we  are  said  to  do  any- 
thing under  the  influence  of  habit  when  we  carry  out  a 
familiar  and  oft-repeated  action  in  response  to  some  initiat- 
ing stimulus  with  scarcely  any  conscious  or  psychical  pur- 
pose or  any  attention  to  the  precise  form  of  the  action." 
The  most  simple  and  yet  most  profound  definition  of  habit 
is  that  it  is  "second  nature." 

All  authors  agree  that  habit  has  a  physiological  basis, 
fcliat  the  sensation  which  the  nerve  carries  to  the  brain  for 
the  first  time  cuts  a  path,  speaking  figuratively,  through 
the  brain,  and  that  the  same  sensation,  if  repeated  and  not 
prevented  from  doing  so,  will  follow  the  same  path.  When 
this  has  been  done  so  many  times  as  to  be  repeated  uncon- 
sciously, habit  has  been  formed. 

Unfortunately  the  word  habit  is  popularly  associated  with 
tendencies  to  repetition  of  that  which  is  evil.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  feelings,  the  word  suggests  bad  habits  rather 
than  good  habits.  As  James  says,  "We  talk  of  the  smoking- 
habit,  and  the  swearing-habit,  and  the  drinking-habit,  but 
not  of  the  abstention-habit,  or  the  moderation-habit,  or  the 
courage-habit,  but  the  fact  is  that  our  virtues  are  habits  as 
much  as  our  vices."  Even  so  intelligent  a  writer  as  R.  L. 
Stevenson  says,  "Evil  was  called  Youth  until  he  was  old 
and  then  he  was  called  Habit."  We  must  not  ignore  the 
fact,  however,  that  habit  refers  as  distinctly  to  tendencies  to 
the  repetition  of  the  good  in  our  lives  as  of  the  evil,  and 


66  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

that  moral  character,  as  we  shall  see  later,  is  in  a  sense 
the  sum  of  all  good  habits. 

2.  The  importance  of  habit.  We  have  only  to  consider 
for  a  moment  how  large  a  part  habit  plays  in  the  affairs 
of  our  daily  life  to  realize  something  of  its  importance. 
James  says,  "Ninety-nine  hundredths  or,  possibly,  nine 
hundred  and  ninety-nine  thousandths  of  our  activity  is 
purely  automatic  and  habitual,  from  our  rising  in  the  morn- 
ing to  our  lying  down  each  night.  Our  dressing  and  un- 
dressing, our  eating  and  drinking,  our  greetings  and  part- 
ings, our  hat-raisings  and  giving  way  for  ladies  to  precede, 
nay,  even  most  of  the  forms  of  our  common  speech,  are 
things  of  a  type  so  fixed  by  repetition  as  almost  to  be 
classed  as  reflex  actions.  To  each  sort  of  impression,  we 
have  an  automatic,  ready-made  response." 

What  a  gain  this  is  in  the  actual  living  of  one's  life  must 
be  very  apparent.  When  we  consider  with  what  pains  and 
at  what  cost  the  child  learns  to  walk,  later  to  talk,  and 
later  to  read,  who  can  estimate  the  loss  of  time  and  energy 
that  would  be  involved  if  each  of  these  acts  instead  of  be- 
coming a  habit  had  to  be  performed  by  a  conscious  effort  of 
the  will  throughout  one's  life  ?  Some  one  has  made  the  in- 
teresting though,  perhaps,  fanciful  suggestion,  that  orig- 
inally the  heartbeats  of  man  and  the  higher  animals  may 
have  been  produced  by  a  conscious  act. 

Another  consideration  that  enforces  the  importance  of 
habit  is  its  unalterableness  when  formed,  except  by  the 
most  strenuous  exertions,  and  then  sometimes  without  com- 
plete success.  Habit  has  been  compared  to  paper  which 
easily  resumes  the  folds  according  to  which  it  has  been  fold- 
ed before;  but,  unfortunately,  unlike  the  paper  which  may 
easily  be  folded  in  a  new  place,  the  mind  does  not  so  easily 
lend  itself  to  a  different  impression.  One  hardly  knows 
whether  or  not  to  agree  with  James  that  "nothing  we  ever 
do  is  in  strict  scientific  literalism  wiped  out,"  but  whether 


HABIT  67 

absolutely  true  or  not,  the  chains  that  bad  habit  produces 
are  of  a  kind  from  which  the  body  and  mind  free  them- 
selves only  by  agonizings  and  tears.  The  reverse  is  also 
true  and  it  is  a  source  of  comfort  that  good  habits  fixed  are 
not  easily  broken  up  at  the  solicitation  of  evil. 

"Sow  a  thought  and  reap  a  deed. 
Sow  a  deed  and  reap  a  habit. 
Sow  a  habit  and  reap  a  character. 
Sow  a  character  and  reap  a  destiny." 

So  true  is  the  above  statement  that  habit  may  even  inter- 
fere with  development  unless  carefully  guarded.  Not  only 
do  bad  habits  prevent  the  development  of  the  character 
in  right  directions,  but  good  habits,  while  they  are  not  at  all 
contradictory  to,  but  rather  in  harmony  with  moral  char- 
acter, fall  short  of  adding  to  the  sum  of  a  person's  moral 
and  spiritual  attainments.  For  example,  a  person  may  have 
formed  right  habits  with  reference  to  the  use  of  language 
which  is  good  as  far  as  it  goes,  but  something  more  than 
habit  will  be  needed  to  enlarge  his  vocabulary  and  deepen 
his  appreciation  of  the  best  literature.  As  Sully  says, 
"Fixity  in  definite  directions  must  not  exclude  plasticity 
and  modifiability  in  others.  The  complete  and  absolute  rule 
in  habit  marks  the  arrest  of  development." 

3.  The  formation  of  habits.  The  physical  basis  of  habit 
suggests  the  importance  of  formation  of  right  habits  in 
early  life.  Not  only  is  this  important  because  of  the  fixity 
of  habits  that  come  with  a  period  of  years,  but  also,  and 
more  especially,  because  of  the  plasticity  of  the  nervous 
system  early  in  life.  Childhood  is,  of  course,  the  chief 
habit-forming  period  of  life.  It  is  then  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  physical  habits  are  formed,  and  it  is  then  that 
habits  are  changed  with  the  least  difficulty.  This  is  recog- 
nized in  such  universal  proverbs  as  the  one:  "As  the  twig 
is  bent  so  is  the  tree  inclined."  The  period  under  twenty 


68      THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

is  important  in  the  formation  of  mental  and  personal  habits. 
It  is  said  that  a  person  rarely  ever  learns  to  speak  a  lan- 
guage without  an  accent  after  twenty.  The  training  of  this 
period  in  habits  of  thought  and  speech,  in  manners  and 
conduct,  are  apt  to  continue  with  a  person  through  his  life. 
The  period  between  twenty  and  thirty  is  important  in  its 
formation  of  professional  and  business  habits. 

James  gives  four  rules  for  the  forming  of  good  habits, 
and  concludes  his  illuminating  chapter  on  Habit  with  the 
remark  that  we  append  to  this  summary  of  his  laws : 

(1)  Launch  yourself  with  as  strong  and  decided  an  ini- 
tiative as  possible. 

(2)  Never  suffer  an  exception  to  occur  until  the  new 
habit  is  securely  rooted  in  your  life. 

(3)  Seize  the  very  first  possible  opportunity  to  act  on 
every  resolution  you  make  and  on  every  emotional  prompt- 
ing you  may  experience  in  the  direction  of  the  habits  you 
aspire  to  gain. 

(4)  Keep  the  faculty  of  effort  alive  in  you  by  a  little 
gratuitous  exercise  every  day.    "As  we  become  permanent 
drunkards  by  so  many  separate  drinks,  so  we  become  saints 
in  the  moral,  and  authorities  and  experts  in  the  practical 
and  scientific  spheres,  by  so  many  separate  acts  and  hours 
of  work.    Let  no  youth  have  any  anxiety  about  the  upshot 
of  his  education,  whatever  the  line  of  it  may  be.     If  he 
keep  faithfully  busy  each  hour  of  the  working  day,  he  may 
safely  leave  the  final  result  to  itself.    He  can  with  perfect 
certainty  count  on  waking  up  some  fine  morning  to  find 
himself  one  of  the  competent  ones  of  his  generation  in  what- 
ever pursuit  he  may  have  singled  out." 

As  has  already  been  said,  moral  character  may  be  re- 
garded, in  a  sense,  as  the  sum  of  all  good  habits.  "Virtue 
itself/'  Dr.  Maudsley  says,  "is  not  safely  lodged  until  it 
has  become  a  habit."  The  development  of  character,  how- 
ever, implies  the  breaking  up  of  evil  habits  and  the  sup- 


HABIT  69 

planting  of  them  by  good  habits.  Here  come  in  the  stress 
and  discipline  of  life,  which  round  out  manhood  and  make 
character  complete.  How  applicable  this  is  to  religious  ex- 
perience and  instruction  must  be  apparent.  The  formation 
of  habits  in  religious  exercises,  in  acts  of  unselfish  service, 
in  turning  away  from  solicitations  to  evil,  is  all  important 
in  the  development  of  the  spiritual  life. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

Teacher's  Hand  Book  of  Psychology.  Sully,  pp.  72-73,  159- 
161,  204-205,  399,  414,  422,  524-529,  551-555. 

*Talks  to  Teachers.    James,  pp.  64-78. 

Psychology  in  Education.    Roark,  pp.  26-27,  55-56. 

*Work.  Hugh  Black,  Chapter  2  on  "The  Habit  of  Work." 
($1.50.) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

We  usually  hear  of  the  evil  of  this  great  force,  the  power 
of  bad  habits  and  the  difficulty  of  breaking  them.  Habit  is 
spoken  of  as  if  it  were  a  diabolic  influence  menacing  us  on 
every  side.  We  forget  that  it  is  a  law  of  life  designed  for 
its  best  interests.  We  forget  that  it  is  full  of  good  and  bless- 
ing, and  is  meant  not  to  destroy  but  to  conserve  and  strength- 
en human  life.  Work.  Hugh  Black,  p.  40. 

First,  habit  simplifies  our  movements,  makes  them  accurate 
and  diminishes  fatigue.  Man  is  born  with  a  tendency  to  do 
more  things  than  he  has  ready-made  arrangements  for  in  his 
nerve-centres.  Most  of  the  performances  of  other  animals 
are  automatic.  But  in  him  the  number  of  them  is  so  enor- 
mous that  most  of  them  must  be  the  fruit  of  painful  study. 
If  practice  did  not  make  perfect,  nor  habit  economize  the 
expense  of  nerves  and  muscular  energy,  he  would  be  in  a 
sorry  plight.  As  Dr.  Maudsley  says:  "If  an  act  became  no 
easier  after  being  done  several  times,  if  the  careful  direction 
of  consciousness  were  necessary  to  its  accomplishment  on  each 
occasion,  it  is  evident  that  the  whole  activity  of  a  lifetime 
might  be  confined  to  one  or  two  deeds — that  no  progress  could 
take  place  in  development.  A  man  might  be  occupied  all  day 
in  dressing  and  undressing  himself;  the  attitude  of  his  body 
would  absorb  all  his  attention  and  energy;  the  washing  of 
his  hands  or  the  fastening  of  a  button  would  be  as  difficult 
to  him  on  each  occasion  as  to  the  child  on  its  first  trial;  and 
he  would,  furthermore,  be  completely  exhausted  by  his  exer- 
tions. Psychology  (Briefer  Course).  James,  p.  138. 

Habit  is  thus  the  enormous  fly-wheel  of  society,  its  most 
precious  conservative  agent.  It  alone  is  what  keeps  us  all 
within  the  bounds  of  ordinance,  and  saves  the  children  of 
fortune  from  envious  uprisings  of  the  poor.  It  alone  pro* 


70  THB    TEACHING   OP    BIBLE    CLASSES 

vents  the  hardest  and  most  repulsive  walks  of  life  from  be- 
ing deserted  by  those  brought  up  to  tread  therein.  It  keeps 
the  fisherman  and  the  deck-hand  at  sea  through  the  winter;  it 
holds  the  miner  in  his  darkness,  and  nails  the  countryman 
to  his  log-cabin  and  his  lonely  farm  through  all  the  months  of 
snow;  it  protects  us  from  invasion  by  the  natives  of  the  desert 
and  the  frozen  zone.  It  dooms  us  all  to  fight  out  the  battle  of 
life  upon  the  lines  of  our  nurture  or  our  early  choice,  and 
to  make  the  best  of* a  pursuit  that  disagrees,  because  there  is 
no  other  for  which  we  are  fitted,  and  it  is  too  late  to  begin 
again.  Psychology  (Briefer  Course).  James,  p.  143. 

It  is  now  generally  accepted  that  habit  has  a  physical  basis 
and  that  it  is  dependent  upon  molecular  changes  in  the  brain 
or,  to  speak  rather  crudely,  upon  brain  paths  through  which 
nervous  force  makes  its  escape  in  time  of  neural  excitation. 
These  paths  have  been  likened  to  the  channels  which  a  little 
stream  of  water  cuts  for  itself  as  it  falls  upon  a  pile  of  sand. 
To  state  the  same  thought  in  another  figure,  just  as  a  coat 
settles  into  wrinkles  to  fit  the  peculiar  form  of  the  wearer's 
body  and  will  not  easily  modify  itself  to  another  form,  so  the 
mind  takes  a  certain  form  of  nervous  discharge  or  manifests 
a  special  form  of  neural  activity.  Again  it  may  be  illus- 
trated by  a  paper  which,  folded  in  a  particular  place,  ever 
after  tends  to  fold  in  the  same  place.  The  Child  and  the 
Bible,  Hubbell,  p.  48. 

Locke  says  as  the  years  advance,  they  bring  greater  freedom 
from  restraint  and  the  boy  must  often  be  left  to  his  own  guid- 
ance because  no  mentor  can  be  ever  at  his  side  except  the 
one  created  in  his  own  mind  by  sound  principles  and  steady 
habits.  It  is  true  this  is  the  best  and  safest  one  and  therefore 
worthy  of  the  highest  consideration;  for  we  must  expect  no- 
thing from  precautionary  maxims  and  good  precepts,  though 
they  be  deeply  impressed  on  the  mind,  beyond  the  point  at 
which  practice  has  changed  them  to  firm  habits.  Habit.  Paul 
Radestock,  p.  4. 


THE    SPIRITUAL   NATURE  71 


XL    THE  SPIRITUAL  NATURE 

We  have  considered  the  physical  nature  with  its  varied 
relations  to  the  other  powers,  the  mental  nature  with  its 
three-fold  function  of  knowing,  feeling  and  willing,  and, 
more  specifically,  such  powers  of  knowing  as  attention,  in- 
terest, sensation,  perception,  apperception,  memory  and 
imagination.  We  turn  now  to  the  spiritual  nature.  Before 
proceeding,  however,  we  ought  again  to  remind  ourselves 
that  these  divisions  of  our  powers  do  not  exist  in  their 
actual  operation  but  are  devices  for  the  purpose  of  facilitat- 
ing our  thought  concerning  them  and  to  aid  in  their  de- 
scription. Man  is  not  a  body  plus  a  mind  plus  a  spirit. 
As  we  have  seen,  he  is  not  even  a  spirit  plus  a  mind  and 
body;  but  he  is  a  man,  spirit,  mind  and  body,  and  what 
we  call  the  spiritual  nature  is  simply  the  right  attitude  of 
the  entire  man  in  all  his  powers  toward  what  is.  Of  faith, 
for  example,  which  is  a  spiritual  power,  the  author  of  "Lux 
Mundi"  says,  "It  is  not  a  faculty,  but  the  whole  man  in  re- 
lationship to  God,"  and  Dr.  Cuyler  says  of  faith,  "Faith  is 
winged  intellect :  man's  best  thought  in  his  best  moments." 
This  prefatory  statement  has  an  application  which  we  must 
note  as  we  pass  along.  The  distinction  which  we  some- 
times make  between  intellectual  and  devotional  Bible  study, 
may  be  very  misleading.  If  it  means  that  we  conceive  of 
a  Bible  study  that  may  be  engaged  in  without  the  use 
of  the  intellectual  powers,  and  for  the  cultivation  of  a  spir- 
itual nature  which  we  think  of  as  being  entirely  separate 
from  our  mental  nature,  we  shall  make  a  grievous  error. 
We  must  remember  what  has  already  been  stated,  that  the 


y%          THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

same  mental  faculties  are  involved  in  the  reception  of  spir- 
itual truth  as  in  the  reception  of  any  other  form  of  truth, 
and  that  there  is  no  access  for  knowledge  to  the  spiritual 
nature  except  through  the  intellectual  faculties.  It  has 
been  truly  said  that  "all  intellectual  study  is  not  devotional, 
but  all  devotional  study  should  be  intellectual  as  well." 

1.  Eeality  of  the  spiritual  nature.  We  are  told  that  God 
made  man  in  His  own  image,  and  from  the  time  of  that 
statement  down  to  that  of  its  modern  correlative,  that  "re- 
ligion is  the  life  of  God  in  the  soul  of  man,"  there  has  been 
a  recognition,  more  or  less  distinct,  of  that  element  in  man 
which  responds  to  and  reaches  out  for  a  divine  being.  It  is 
this  element  within  a  man  that  we  know  as  the  spiritual 
nature,  or  as  the  religious  sense,  or  religious  instinct,  or 
religious  impulse.  According  to  Coe,  there  are  three  things 
that  the  assumption  of  such  a  nature  does  not  imply,  and 
three  things  that  it  does  imply.  Negatively,  it  does  not 
imply :  ( 1 )  That  the  possessor  of  this  religious  nature  is  all 
right  as  he  is;  (2)  that  he  can  grow  properly  by  a  merely 
"natural"  process  without  divine  help;  (3)  that  the  life 
principle  can  take  care  of  itself  without  our  help.  Posi- 
tively, it  implies:  (1)  That  the  possessor  of  this  religious 
nature  has  more  than  a  passive  capacity  for  spiritual  things, 
but  that  just  as  animals  go  forth  in  search  of  food,  so  a 
positive  spiritual  nature  goes  forth  spontaneously  in  search 
of  God;  (2)  that  nothing  short  of  union  with  God  can 
really  bring  a  human  being  to  himself,  but  that  failing  to 
find  Him,  we  lose  even  ourselves;  (3)  that  the  successive 
phases  in  spiritual  growth  are  so  many  phases  of  a  grow- 
ing consciousness  of  the  divine  meaning  of  life.  ("Educa- 
tion in  Religion  and  Morals,"  pp.  61  and  62.) 

It  is  at  this  point  that  we  find  the  strongest  argument 
for  the  existence  of  God  as  well  as  for  the  existence  of 
a  spiritual  nature  in  man.  We  find  in  all  normal  men 
a  reaching  out  for  a  power  beyond  them,  and  as  the 


THE    SPIRITUAL   NATURE  73 

turning  of  the  bird  towards  the  warmer  climate  implies 
the  existence  of  such  a  climate,  as  the  turning  of  the 
fish  towards  the  sea  implies  the  existence  of  such  a  sea,  so 
the  stretching  out  of  the  soul  towards  a  power  higher  than 
itself,  its  refusal  to  be  satisfied  until  union  is  effected  witl1 
God,  implies  that  God  must  be.  "Thou  hast  made  us  f o 
Thyself,  and  our  hearts  are  restless  until  they  rest  in 
Thee." 

The  reality  of  the  spiritual  nature  has  a  vital  applica- 
tion to  the  religious  instruction  of  boys.  To  appreciate  the 
force  of  this  application  we  must  revert  to  our  definitions 
of  Teaching  and  Education :  "Teaching  is  simply  helping 
the  mind  to  perform  its  function  of  knowing  and  grow- 
ing." "Teaching  is  the  process  by  which  one  mind  from 
set  purpose  produces  the  life-unfolding  process  in  another." 
"Teaching  is  enabling  another  to  re-state  the  truth  in  the 
terms  of  his  own  life."  "Education  is  the  process  of  de- 
velopment or  drawing  out  of  the  faculties  of  the  individual 
man  and  training  for  the  various  functions  of  life."  Re- 
ligious instruction  or  education,  then,  will  draw  out  the 
powers  of  the  spiritual  nature  and  train  them  for  the  func- 
tions of  life.  Coe  has  indicated  how  a  different  concep- 
tion arose  in  earlier  years:  "Christianity's  first  great  task 
was  to  win  men  from  heathenism.  It  had  to  deal  with 
maturity,  not  with  childhood,  and  it  was  thus  that  the 
standpoint  of  maturity  appears  to  have  become  all-con- 
trolling. A  mature  heathen  could  become  a  Christian  only 
by  a  decisive  transformation.  He  must  change  from  one 
set  of  religious  beliefs  to  another,  from  one  set  of  re- 
ligious practices  to  another,  from  the  permitted  immoral- 
ities of  paganism  to  the  ethical  standard  of  Christianity. 
He  must  repent  and  have  a  new  heart,  and  baptism  was  the 
culmination  or  even  the  means  of  this  inner  renewal.  Not 
unnaturally  it  came  to  be  taken  for  granted  that  there  is 
only  one  process  whereby  one  can  become  a  Christian — the 


74      THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

process  that  appears  in  its  fulness  in  the  conversion  of  the 
pagan.  The  child  before  baptism  was  unregenerate,  but 
by  baptism  was  regenerated,  or,  before  some  inner  experi- 
ence of  regeneration,  he  was  in  a  condition  of  depravity 
which  must  be  supernaturally  removed  before  spiritual  life 
could  begin."  It  was  to  meet  this  belief  that  Horace  Bush- 
nell  wrote  his  "book  on  "Christian  Nurture/'  in  1847,  in 
which  he  took  the  position  that  "the  child  is  to  grow  up 
a  Christian  and  never  know  himself  as  being  otherwise.5' 
Or,  as  another  stated  it  later,  "Instead  of  saying  that  a 
person  must  be  converted  to  God  in  order  to  be  religious,  we 
may  say  that  he  must  be  converted  from  God  to  evil  before 
he  can  be  irreligious."  In  order  to  proper  instruction,  then, 
the  religious  nature  of  the  normal  child  should  be  expected 
to  develop  and  ripen  into  such  a  consciousness  of  God  and 
such  a  relation  to  Christ  that  the  voluntary  decision  to  en- 
ter upon  the  Christian  life  will  not  be  in  the  nature  of  a 
cataclysm,  but  a  natural  stepping  over  the  line. 

2.  The  powers  of  the  spiritual  nature.  The  chief  power 
of  the  spiritual  nature  is  faith.  Faith  is  defined  by  the 
author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  as  "the  substance  of 
things  hoped  for,  the  evidence  of  things  not  seen."  It  has 
also  been  defined  variously  as  the  eye  of  the  soul,  as  the 
nerve  of  sensation  for  the  soul,  as  the  sixth  sense,  as  spir- 
itual perception.  In  all  of  these  definitions  the  dominant 
thought  seems  to  be  that  faith  is  the  power  through  which 
man  receives  a  knowledge  of  spiritual  realities.  The  analogy 
between  sense  perception  of  material  objects  and  faith  per- 
ception of  spiritual  verities  is  interesting  and  suggestive. 
As  in  sense  perception  the  essential  element  is  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  object  which  causes  the  sensation,  so  in  faith 
perception  the  vital  feature  is  the  recognition  by  the  soul 
of  the  Divine  Being  or  the  spiritual  truth  producing  the 
spiritual  thrill.  As  in  the  case  of  seeing  with  the  eye  it  is 
only  the  abnormal  man  who  is  without  the  power,  so  in  the 


THE   SPIRITUAL   NATURE  75 

case  of  seeing  by  faith  it  is  only  the  man  who  has  destroyed 
his  power  of  seeing,  or  otherwise  been  brought  into  an  ab- 
normal condition,  who  is  without  spiritual  perception.  Dr. 
Abbott  says,  "The  religious  perception  is  far  more  common. 
than  art  perception ;  the  capacity  to  know,  honor,  and  love 
God  is  far  more  widely  found  than  the  capacity  to  appre- 
ciate music.  Indeed  it  would  be  quite  within  bounds  to 
say  that  in  the  world  of  humanity  those  who  have  no  appar- 
ent power  to  perceive  the  invisible  divinity  and  no  spontane- 
ous impulse  to  reverence  it,  are  fewer  in  number  than  those 
who  lack  the  organs  of  sight  and  hearing,  and  that  the  testi- 
mony to  the  reality  of  a  God,  directly  and  immediately 
though  spiritually  perceived,  is  quite  as  uniform  as  the  tes- 
timony to  the  reality  of  a  physical  world  by  the  senses  of 
sight  and  hearing."  As  the  power  of  the  eye  may  be  culti- 
vated so  the  power  of  spiritual  perception  may  be  developed 
by  appropriate  means,  and  as  the  failure  to  use  the  eye  for  a 
series  of  years  would  result  in  impairing  its  sight,  so  the 
failure  to  avail  one's  self  of  the  power  of  spiritual  percep- 
tion would  result  in  the  loss  of  that  power.  "The  natural 
man/'  says  St.  Paul,  "receiveth  not  the  things  of  the  spirit 
of  God,  for  they  are  foolishness  unto  him :  neither  can  he 
know  them  because  they  are  spiritually  discerned."  (I  Cor. 
2:14.) 

3.  The  stages  of  growth  in  the  spiritual  nature.  As  the 
analogy  of  the  office  of  the  mental  powers  served  us  in  a 
study  of  the  spiritual  power  of  faith,  so  the  analogy  of  the 
development  of  the  mental  faculties  will  serve  us  in  appre- 
ciating the  growth  of  the  spiritual  powers.  We  have  seen 
that  perception,  the  memory,  imagination,  and  other  men- 
tal powers  have  their  appropriate  times  in  the  life  when 
they  begin  to  assert  themselves,  and  special  periods  when 
the  range  of  their  activities  widen.  We  might  expect, 
therefore,  to  find  stages  of  growth  in  the  spiritual  nature  of 
the  individual  in  accordance  with  which  specific  religious 


76  THE    TEACHING   OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

experiences  might  be  looked  for  at  appropriate  periods.  For 
example,  we  have  seen  that  the  development  of  the  spiritual 
nature  during  the  period  of  adolescence  is  such  that  we  may 
reasonably  expect  the  boy  at  that  time  to  pass  into  a  con- 
scious acceptance  of  religious  responsibility.  The  most 
general  application  of  this  fact  to  religious  instruction  is 
that  we  must  not  expect  the  boy  to  have  the  religious  ex- 
periences of  the  adult.  St.  Paul  says  again,  "When  I  was  a 
child  I  spoke  as  a  child,  I  understood  as  a  child,  I  thought 
as  a  child ;  but  when  I  became  a  man  I  put  away  childish 
things."  (I  Cor.  13:11.)  Drummond  said  of  cant,  that 
an  old  woman  has  her  religion,  and  a  boy  has  his  religion, 
and  that  when  the  boy  apes  the  religion  of  the  old  woman, 
he  is  guilty  of  cant,  llie  putting  of  the  language  of  adult 
experiences  into  the  lips  of  the  youth  not  only  makes  him 
unnatural,  but  must  be  detrimental  to  his  real  religious 
development.  The  same  remark  would  apply  to  the  as- 
sumption by  boys  or  men  of  one  temperament  of  a  type  of 
religious  experience  that  belongs  to  another  temperament, 
or  the  expression  of  sentiments  that  go  with  the  meditative 
and  aesthetic  characteristics  by  those  in  whom  the  militant 
and  active  elements  are  most  pronounced,  or  the  assumption 
of  the  feminine  element,  in  their  religious  life,  by  boys 

and  men. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

*  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.    Chapter  XI. 

The  Spiritual  Life.    Coe,  pp.  205-260. 

•Education  in  Religion  and  Morals.  Coe,  pp.  22,  37-39,  60-63, 
195,  208. 

*In  Aid  of  Faith.    Abbott,  pp.  31-51.     ($1.00.) 

Man's  Value  to  Society.  Hillis,  Chapter  VII. 

Christian  Nurture.     Horace  Bushnell.     ($1.25.) 

The  Work  of  a  Boys'  Department.  Coe,  pp.  12-25.  (20 
cents.) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

Of  the  three  elements,  body,  mind  and  soul,  which  make 
up  a  responsible  human  being,  two  only  have  been  hitherto 
treated  as  fit  subjects  for  scientific  inquiry.  From  six  thou- 
sand years  of  contemplation  of  the  phenomena  of  human  life 
and  thought,  only  two  sciences  have  emerged.  Physiology 


THE    SPIRITUAL    NATURE  77 

has  told  us  all  that  Is  possible  of  the  human  body:  Psychology, 
of  the  mind.  But  the  half  is  not  accounted  for.  We  wish, 
further,  a  spiritual  psychology  to  tell  us  of  the  unseen  real- 
ities of  the  soul.  The  New  Evangelism.  Drummond,  p.  261. 

When  I  ask  myself  what  is  the  real  basis  of  my  religious 
belief  in  God,  in  immortality,  in  Christ,  in  the  Bible,  I  find 
that  basis  is  my  own  consciousness,  receiving  and  responding 
to  the  invisible  truth :  and  when  I  begin  to  ask  what  is  the  real 
basis  of  that  belief  in  the  great  body  of  Christians,  most  of 
whom  have  neither  the  education,  the  time  nor  the  books  for 
independent  philosophical  investigation,  I  see  that  this  same 
inward  witness  is  the  one  which  attests  to  them  the  truth, 
which  they  are  often,  for  that  reason,  puzzled  to  attest  to 
others.  A  French  deist  argues  with  a  Christian  friend  at  con- 
siderable length  against  immortality.  The  friend  replies  in  a 
sentence:  "Probably  you  are  right.  I  presume  you  are  not 
immortal;  but  I  AM."  In  Aid  of  Faith.  Abbott,  pp.  36-37. 

The  whole  work  of  education  consists  in  helping  the  de- 
velopment of  what  is  already  there.  The  basal  assumption 
of  education  in  religion  is  that  the  child  has  a  religious 
nature,  and  that  this  nature  is  not  a  mere  empty  capacity 
waiting  to  be  filled,  but  rather  a  positive  impulse,  trend  or 
law.  Instead  of  saying  that  a  person  must  be  converted  to 
God  in  order  to  be  religious,  we  may  say  that  he  must  be 
converted  from  God  to  evil  before  he  can  be  irreligious.  Hib- 
bard  boldly  took  this  position,  agreeing  with  Bushnell  that 
"the  child  is  to  grow  up  a  Christian  and  never  know  him- 
self as  being  otherwise."  In  the  mind  of  Froebel,  the  chief 
founder  of  the  kindergarten,  the  religious  conception  of  man 
was,  in  fact,  fundamental  and  all  pervasive.  "Every  child," 
he  said,  "in  right  of  its  soul,  is  to  be  received  as  something 
divine  appearing  in  human  form  as  a  pledge  of  God's  grace,  a 
gift  of  God."  The  special  destination  of  man  he  conceives  to 
be  "to  become  fully  and  clearly  conscious  of  his  own  essence, 
the  divine  that  is  in  him,  and  to  make  it  manifest  in  his  own 
life."  The  divine  in  man,  which  is  his  essence,  is  to  be  un- 
folded and  brought  to  his  consciousness  by  means  of  education. 
Education,  therefore,  has  to  raise  the  human  being  to  a  knowl- 
edge of  himself  and  of  humanity;  to  a  knowledge  of  God  and 
of  nature,  and  to  the  pure  and  holy  life  which  follows  from 
this  knowledge.  This  coming  to  religious  self-consciousness 
will  involve  something  that  may  be  called  a  decision.  It  is 
more  or  less  deliberate  counting  of  oneself  a  Christian.  But 
this  kind  of  decision  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  de- 
cision of  a  rebel  when  he  lays  down  arms.  It  is  a  ratification 
rather  than  a  reversal.  The  Work  of  a  Boys'  Department. 
Coe,  pp.  20-23. 

The  doctrine  of  a  new  birth  was  never  given  prominence 
in  any  apostolic  appeal  to  the  unconverted.  Our  Lord  did 
not  preach  it  to  the  common  people.  His  only  mention  of 
it  was  made  in  a  talk  by  night  with  a  theological  professor 
on  the  philosophy  of  salvation,  It  has  been  sadly  perverted 


78      THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES. 

by  being  thrust  in  the  face  of  young  children,  or  of  older 
unrepentant  sinners,  as  if  it  were  something  which  limited 
their  personal  duty  or  barred  their  privileges.  It  has  been 
made  a  barrier  and  a  stumbling-block  to  those  who  would 
enter  the  service  of  Christ.  Conversion  has  been  given  a 
place  in  the  plan  of  salvation  which  only  Christ  should  oc- 
cupy. And  the  eyes  of  loving  little  ones,  or  of  longing  peni- 
tents, have  been  directed  away  from  the  living  Saviour  to 
a  single  fact  in  God's  process  of  redemption.  Teaching  and 
Teachers,  Trumbull,  pp,  344-345, 


REVIEW  79 


XII.     REVIEW 

This  review,  coming  midway  in  the  course,  should  be  a 
written  one,  and  the  rules  of  an  ordinary  examination 
should  be  observed  in  its  conduct.  The  students  should 
write  the  answers  to  the  questions  on  uniform  paper,  and 
without  the  use  of  books  or  conference  with  other  members 
of  the  class.  Fifteen  questions  are  given.  Only  ten  ques- 
tions should  be  answered,  the  student  making  his  own  choice 
from  the  fifteen,  and  no  credit  should  be  given  for  answers 
to  more  than  the  first  ten  questions  chosen  by  the  student. 
The  teacher  should  mark  the  answer  to  each  question  on  a 
scale  of  ten,  and  a  total  of  75  on  ten  questions  should  be 
considered  sufficient  to  pass.  It  will  be  found  that  this 
form  of  review  will  be  an  excellent  preparation  for  the 
more  formal  examination  at  the  close  of  the  course. 

1.  What  is  teaching? 

2.  What  four  relations   does  the  teacher  bear  to  the 
student  ? 

3.  Why  should  the  Bible  class  teacher  have  a  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  teaching  ? 

4.  Designate  an  ordinary  effect  of  the  body  on  the  mind, 
of  the  mind  on  the  body,  and  of  the  spirit  on  the  body,  with 
scriptural  references. 

5.  Name  some  of  the  characteristics  of  boys  between 
twelve  and  sixteen,  and  indicate  how  religious  instruction 
should  be  directed  to  suit  these  characteristics. 

6.  What  three  powers  has  the  mind? 

7.  What  is  attention? 


80  THE    TEACHING    OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

8.  What  is  the  distinction  between  sensation  and  per- 
ception ? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  apperception? 

10.  What  principles  should  be  observed  in  requiring  chil- 
dren to  memorize  portions  of  Scripture  ? 

11.  How  may  imagination  help  in  Bible  study? 

12.  Why  should  the  feelings  not  be  repressed  ? 

13.  What  is  the  will? 

14.  What  considerations  make  the  formation  of  good 
habits  important? 

15.  What  does  the  right  view  of  education  suggest  as  to 
the  decision  of  the  normal  boy  to  become  a  Christian? 


PART  THREE 


THE  LESSON:    THE  TEACHER'S  APPROACH  TO 
THE  STUDENT 


ADAPTATION  83 


XIII.    ADAPTATION 

1.  The  teacher  should  adapt  himself  to  the  language  of 
the  student.  The  meaning  of  words  is  notoriously  illusive. 
The  word  that  conveys  one  signification  to  this  man  may 
convey  an  entirely  different  signification  to  that  man.  The 
teacher  and  the  student  may  see  the  same  word  in  totally 
different  lights,  and  thereupon  may  hang  the  failure  of  an 
entire  lesson.  Henry  Clay  Trumbull  tells  of  an  intelligent 
Sunday-school  teacher  who  proceeded  on  the  assumption 
that  the  members  of  the  class  understood  the  meaning  of  the 
"passion"  as  applied  to  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  whose 
method  of  teaching  was  revolutionized  by  the  discovery  that 
they  had  no  conception  of  the  word.  The  teacher  should 
study  the  vocabulary  of  his  student.  This  may  be  done 
by  inducing  the  student  to  express  himself,  and  carefully 
observing  his  choice  of  words.  It  has  been  said  that  of  the 
one  hundred  thousand  words  in  the  English  language,  few 
men  understand  more  than  twenty  thousand,  and  the  vocab- 
ulary of  a  child  of  ten  rarely  contains  more  than  fifteen 
hundred.  The  folly  of  taking  for  granted  that  the  student 
understands  the  language  of  the  lesson  at  every  point,  there- 
fore, is  very  apparent.  Gregory  well  says  that  "not  what 
the  speaker  expresses  from  his  own  mind,  but  what  the 
hearer  understands  and  reproduces  in  his  own  mind,  meas- 
ures the  exact  communicating  power  of  the  language  used/' 
It  is  of  little  consequence  that  the  teacher  may  be  fluent 
in  speech  and  is  able  to  express  himself  in  a  wealth  of  lan- 
guage if  the  student  fails  to  understand  the  meaning  of 
the  words  used ;  for,  it  must  be  again  recalled,  that  teaching 


84  THE    TEACHING   OP   BIBLE   CLASSES 

implies  the  self-activity  of  the  student  and  unless  the  spark 
of  intelligence  is  struck  in  the  mind  of  the  student,  no 
fires  of  activity  will  be  kindled. 

The  lesson  is  effective  to  just  the  extent  of  the  student's 
appreciation  of  the  language  which  serves  as  the  vehicle 
of  the  thought.  All  this  has  a  special  application  to  the 
language  of  the  Bible.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  much 
of  the  scriptural  language  is  archaic  and  that  the  mean- 
ing of  many  of  its  words  was  acquired  by  the  teacher  after 
careful  instruction  or  long  experience.  The  learner's  lack 
of  such  instruction  and  experience  must  be  borne  in  mind. 
Mr.  Trumbull  quotes  the  effort  of  Mark  Twain's  new  min- 
ister and  a  rough  Nevada  miner,  who  wanted  to  arrange 
for  funeral  services  over  a  dead  comrade,  to  make  them- 
selves understood  to  each  other,  as  an  illustration  of  the 
necessity  of  a  common  basis  of  language  between  the  teacher 
and  the  student.  It  should  be  noted  also  that  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Bible  is  very  often  the  language  of  the  spiritual 
realm,  and  care  should  be  exercised  in  interpreting  this 
language  to  the  learner  in  the  terms  of  his  own  experience. 
The  stock  phrases  which  are  frequently  used  by  Christian 
people  in  speaking  of  their  spiritual  experiences  sometimes 
stand  in  the  way  of  the  acceptance  of  the  truth  by  those 
whom  they  are  trying  to  interest  or  influence. 

2.  The  teacher  should  adapt  himself  to  the  knowledge 
and  experience  of  the  student.  The  adaptation  should  be  in 
matter  as  well  as  in  method.  The  mere  simplifying  of  lan- 
guage will  not  necessarily  bring  the  instruction  within  the 
range  of  the  student.  The  boy  is  not  a  diminutive  adult, 
and  the  cutting  down  of  his  father's  suit  will  not  be  ac- 
ceptable to  him ;  he  must  have  one  made  for  himself.  The* 
boy  or  youth  will  not  tolerate  anything  like  condescension 
in  the  use  of  language  towards  him,  and  the  great  danger 
is  not  so  much  that  the  language  of  the  teacher  will  not 
be  intelligible  to  him  as  that  the  subject-matter  itself  shall 


ADAPTATION  85 

not  touch  the  plane  of  his  experience.  Neither  will  the 
diminution  of  the  amount  of  instruction  on  a  given  sub- 
ject meet  the  requirements  of  the  case.  Here,  too,  the 
adaptation  must  be  in  quality  as  well  as  in  quantity.  White 
says  that  forty  years  ago  elementary  text-books  in  the 
schools  were  prepared  "on  the  basis  of  the  theory  that 
primary  pupils  may  be  taught  the  same  kinds  of  knowledge 
as  the  pupils  in  the  higher  grades,  and  by  essentially  the 
same  methods,  the  only  radical  difference  between  the  pri- 
mary and  advanced  instruction  being  in  the  amount  of  the 
knowledge  taught,  the  former  covering  daily  less  ground 
than  the  latter.  The  only  essential  difference  between  the 
elementary  and  higher  books  in  all  branches  was  the  fact 
that  the  former  were  thinner  than  the  latter." 

Our  biblical  instruction  has  not  yet  freed  itself  from 
this  conception  of  adaptation  and  it  is  still  thought  by 
many,  even  by  those  who  are  in  sympathy  with  graded  sys- 
tems of  instruction,  that  the  subject-matter  of  the  Bible 
may  be  adapted  to  younger  students  either  by  simplification 
of  the  language  or  the  amount  of  material  covered.  It  is 
doubtless  on  this  account  that  older  boys  are  so  frequently 
found  to  be  acceptable  leaders  of  younger  boys  in  their 
Bible  study.  The  older  boy  is  nearer  than  the  adult  to  the 
younger  boy  in  the  plane  of  his  experience,  in  his  con- 
ceptions of  life  and  truth,  and  in  his  use  of  language.  He 
does  not  take  for  granted,  as  the  adult  does,  the  existence 
of  knowledge  which  has  not  yet  come  to  the  boy.  Prof. 
Payne,  an  eminent  English  teacher,  has  said,  in  recognition 
of  this  truth:  "A  man  profoundly  acquainted  with  a  sub- 
ject may  be  unapt  to  teach  it  by  reason  of  the  very  height 
and  extent  of  his  knowledge.  His  mind  habitually  dwells 
among  the  mountains,  and  he  has  therefore  small  sympathy 
with  the  toilsome  plodders  on  the  plain  below."  Adaptation 
does  not  imply  that  great  truths  may  not  or  should  not  be 
taught  to  younger  students,  but  that  they  must  be  brought 


86      THE  TEACHING  OP  BIBLE  CLASSES. 

to  the  student  at  the  point  of  his  own  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience to  which  they  appropriately  belong.  He  must  be 
led  by  easy  stages  from  the  known  to  the  unknown. 

This  brings  us  again  to  the  subject  of  apperception,  to 
which  we  have  already  given  some  consideration,  and  which 
we  found  to  be  "a  spontaneous  act  of  the  mind  in  imme- 
diately seeking  something  in  its  store  of  ideas  with  which 
to  classify  a  new  idea;  the  translation  and  interpretation 
of  the  new  in  terms  of  the  known."  So  far  as  this  act  is 
one  of  classification  on  the  part  of  the  student,  it  might 
well  be  considered  under  our  next  topic,  "Method  or  Sys- 
tem." So  far  as  the  utilization  of  the  principle  by  the 
teacher  is  concerned,  it  should  be  considered  under  the  head 
of  Adaptation.  "It  is  easy  to  add  to  what  is  already  dis- 
covered," says  Pestalozzi,  "and  no  wise  teacher  endeavors 
to  commence  instruction  in  a  new  subject  before  finding 
something  in  the  mind  of  the  student,  be  he  boy  or  adult, 
into  which  the  new  may  be  grafted."  To  no  subject  of  in- 
struction does  this  apply  more  forcibly  than  to  religious 
truth.  Here,  as  Bailey  well  says,  "our  teaching  must  be 
correlated  with  the  life  of  the  pupil.  What  does  the  child 
care  about  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  or  the  repairing 
of  the  temple,  or  the  woes  upon  the  Pharisees  ?  Primarily, 
nothing.  These  topics  are  as  foreign  to  his  thought  as  the 
problem  of  evil  or  the  law  of  the  correlation  of  forces.  His 
only  possible  interest  must  come  through  association.  If  he 
has  revolted  from  authority  at  home  or  at  school,  if  the 
meeting-house  in  his  village  has  been  extensively  repaired 
within  his  memory,  a  wise  teacher  may  be  able  to  excite  his 
interest  in  similar  experiences  of  people  long  ago.  The  boy 
may  be  led  from  his  own  quarrel  with  his  companions  as  to 
who  should  be  president  of  the  boys'  club,  to  that  of  the 
disciples  as  to  who  should  be  first  in  the  kingdom  of  God ; 
and  from  the  effects  of  wild  companions  upon  himself  to  the 
effects  of  similar  companions  upon  Rehoboam,  the  son  of 


ADAPTATION  87 

Solomon/'  Jesus  made  frequent  use  of  this  principle.  At- 
tention has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  strangely  enough 
He  did  not  make  use  of  illustrations  drawn  from  His  own 
work  as  a  carpenter,  but  from  the  more  common  experience 
of  His  auditors  with  nature,  or  as  fishermen,  or  in  the  ordi- 
nary round  of  household  duties.  Paul,  too,  observed  the 
same  principle  in  opening  his  address  to  the  Athenians 
when  he  said,  "I  perceive  that  in  all  things  ye  are  very 
religious." 

3.  The  teacher  should  adapt  himself  to  the  needs  of  the 
student.  We  must  remind  ourselves  again  that  a  mere 
intellectual  study  of  the  Bible  can  have  no  desirable  re- 
sult. As  a  book  intended  primarily  for  the  development  of 
the  spiritual  life  any  other  treatment  of  it  is  abnormal. 
Those  who  engage  in  Bible  study  for  any  other  purpose 
may  be  likened  to  those  "who  are  always  learning  and  never 
coming  to  a  knowledge  of  the  truth."  An  observance  of  the 
principle  of  adaptation  will  serve  us  here  also.  The  in- 
culcation of  spiritual  principles  and  moral  duties  should 
be  based  on  such  acquaintance  in  these  directions  as  the 
student  has  made  already.  The  application,  however,  need 
not  be  made  in  a  set  way  at  the  conclusion  of  the  lesson. 
Indeed,  it  should  not  be  always  so  made,  to  be  most  effica- 
cious. The  instruction  which  attaches  itself  with  hooks 
of  steel  to  the  present  experience  and  attainments  of  the 
student  will  make  its  own  application.  Miss  Blow  notes 
that  the  mind  of  the  child  may  be  trusted  to  do  its  own 
universalizing,  and  Patterson  DuBois  says,  "Our  moral  tags 
or  applications  are  the  ruin  of  many  of  our  Bible  and  other 
stories  for  children,"  and  we  might  add  that  they  are  often- 
times the  ruin  of  our  Bible  instruction  for  older  students 
as  well. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 
*The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.    Gregory,  pp.  49-80. 
*Prlmer  on  Teaching.    Adams,  pp.  54-62. 
*The  Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching.    DuBois,  pp.  21-45. 


88  THE    TEACHING    OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

Teaching  and  Teachers.    Trumbull,  pp.  79-91. 
Education  in  Religion  and  Morals.    Coe,  pp.  107-109,  174-175. 
($1.35.) 
Elements  of  Pedagogy.   White,  pp.  100-104. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

Our  working  rule  should  be  to  use  as  simple  language  as  we 
can  without  straining,  that  is  without  unnaturalness,  and  to 
explain  no  words  except  those  representing  ideas  that  really 
form  part  of  the  actual  lesson.  But  we  do  not  require  to  ex- 
plain the  exact  meaning  of  ox,  or  ass,  or  manservant.  If  the 
pupil  does  not  understand  an  expression,  no  great  harm  is 
done.  It  is  only  a  matter  of  postponing  a  bit  of  knowledge. 
But  if  a  wrong  meaning  is  conveyed  harm  has  been  done. 
Primer  on  Teaching.  Adams,  pp.  59-60. 

Find  what  your  pupil  knows  of  the  subject  you  wish  to 
teach — not  of  some  text-book,  but  of  the  facts  and  elements  of 
the  subject.  This  is  his  starting-point.  Make  the  most  of 
the  pupil's  knowledge.  Let  him  feel  its  extent  and  value  as  a 
means  of  learning  more.  Lead  him  to  clear  up  and  freshen  his 
knowledge  by  attempting  a  clear  statement  of  it.  This  will 
bring  him  to  the  border  of  the  unknown.  The  Seven  Laws  of 
Teaching.  Gregory,  p.  76. 

Modern  method  recognizes  the  fact  that  the  individual  mind 
in  its  development  repeats  the  order  of  development  of  the 
race  mind.  Mankind,  in  its  progress  from  a  rude  and  savage 
state,  passes  through  three  broadly  marked  "culture  epochs." 
In  the  cnildhood  of  the  race,  myths  and  legends,  accounts  of 
demigods  and  heroes,  abound.  All  objects  in  nature  are  en- 
dowed with  personality,  and  natural  phenomena  are  explained 
as  the  acts  of  gods  or  demons.  As  the  race  advances,  imagina- 
tion and  superstition  are  modified  by  close  observation  and  in- 
creasing experience,  a  beginning  is  made  in  empirical  science, 
and  the  practical  arts  are  established.  As  progress  continues, 
pure  science  takes  the  place  of  empiricism,  and  the  search 
for  the  relations  and  causes  of  things  gives  rise  to  philosophy 
and  speculative  investigation.  Civilized  man  passes  through 
these  three  stages  of  mind  growth  in  his  individual  life,  and 
the  processes  of  his  education  should  be  in  accord  with  them. 
For  the  child  there  should  be  fairy  stories,  fables,  the  per- 
sonification of  natural  forces,  and  true  biography  of  the  world's 
heroes.  For  the  youth  there  must  be  much  observing  and 
experimenting,  trial  of  many  things  and  accumulation  of  facts 
in  every  field  of  knowledge.  For  the  man  there  must  be  in- 
vestigation and  inquiry  into  ultimate  causes — the  why  and  how 
of  things.  A  little  reflection  will  show  that  all  that  has  been 
said  so  far  regarding  method  can  be  summed  up  in  the  one 
principle:  The  processes  of  education  should  conform  to  the 
order  of  mind  growth.  Psychology  in  Education.  Roark,  pp. 
276-277. 

In  moat  cases  some  sort  of  preparation  is  necessary.    This 
may  take  the  form  of  the  arousing  of  curiosity  regarding  that 


ADAPTATION  89 

which  is  to  be  presented,  or  of  a  demand  for  the  solution, 
of  a  problem.  It  may  be  accomplished  through  establishing 
emotional  or  intellectual  congruity;  by  arousing  feelings  akin 
to  the  tone  of  the  story,  or  by  calling  to  remembrance  kindred 
facts  or  ideas,  and  stationing  them  at  the  threshold  as  a  kind 
of  reception  committee — for  it  is  the  "law  of  the  mental  jun- 
gle" that  only  on  the  introduction  of  someone  already  in  can 
entrance  be  granted  to  him  who  is  without  I  should  say 
that  the  teacher  should  aim  to  make  the  preparation  indirect 
rather  than  direct,  informal  rather  than  formal  and  as  brief 
as  possible.  Principles  of  Religious  Education.  Walter  L.  Her- 
vey,  p.  152. 

But  there  is  a  still  higher  and  more  fruitful  stage  in  learn- 
ing. It  is  found  in  the  study  of  the  uses  and  applications  of 
knowledge.  No  lesson  is  learned  to  its  full  and  rich  ending 
till  it  is  traced  to  its  connections  with  the  great  working 
machinery  of  nature  and  of  life.  Nature  is  not  an  idle  show, 
nor  is  the  Bible  a  mass  of  old  wives'  fables.  Every  fact  has 
its  uses,  and  every  truth  its  application,  and  till  these  are 
found  the  lesson  lies  idle  and  useless  as  a  wheel  out  of  gear 
with  its  fellows  in  the  busy  machinery.  The  practical  rela- 
tions of  truth,  and  the  forces  which  lie  hid  behind  all  facts, 
are  never  really  understood  till  we  apply  our  knowledge  to 
some  of  the  practical  purposes  of  life  and  thought.  The  boy 
who  finds  a  use  for  his  lesson  becomes  doubly  interested  and 
successful  in  his  studies.  What  was  idle  knowledge,  only 
half  understood,  becomes  practical  wisdom  full  of  zest  and 
power.  Especially  is  this  true  of  Bible  knowledge,  whose 
superficial  study  is  of  slight  effect,  but  whose  profounder  learn- 
ing changes  the  whole  man.  "The  letter  killeth;  the  spirit 
giveth  life."  The  Seven  Laux  of  Teaching,  Gregory,  pp,  109410, 


90  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 


XIV.    METHOD 

"A  teacher/'  says  Roark,  "must  know  the  three  M's, 
Matter,  Mind  and  Method,"  and  adds,  "A  teacher  with 
good  method  and  limited  knowledge  will  do  far  better 
work  than  one  with  full  knowledge  and  poor  method :  with- 
out method  he  is  not  a  teacher  at  all,  no  matter  how  much 
subject-matter  he  knows." 

We  have  been  discussing  the  teaching  of  the  lesson  with 
reference  to  the  preparation  of  the  student  to  receive  it 
by  reason  of  what  he  already  has  in  his  possession.  We  are 
now  to  discuss : 

1.  The  teaching  of  a  truth  with  reference  to  other  truths, 
with  which  it  may  be  connected,  whether  already  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  student  or  still  to  be  acquired  by  him.  Each 
lesson  may  be  compared  to  a  building  "fitly  joined  to- 
gether," in  which  each  material  of  construction  has  its 
appropriate  place,  and  in  which  if  any  material  is  improp- 
erly placed  the  whole  structure  is  affected.  There  is  an 
orderly  arrangement  of  the  materials  of  the  lesson  by  which 
one  step  suggests  the  next  step,  just  as  certainly  as  the  laid 
foundations  of  the  building  suggest  the  superstructure.  In 
taking  this  step  we  proceed  in  accordance  with  the  laws 
of  association.  The  fact  that  in  teaching  we  are  dealing 
with  spiritual  truths,  while  in  building  we  handle  material 
things,  in  nowise  lessens,  but  rather  emphasizes  the  im- 
portance of  proceeding  with  a  due  regard  to  method.  Half 
truths,  isolated  facts,  detached  scriptural  texts,  have  been 
the  bane  of  the  Christian  church.  It  is  due  to  the  failure 
of  systematic  comparison  of  truth  with  truth  that  the  Scrip- 


METHOD  91 

tures  have  been  quoted  in  support  of  erratic  views  and  even 
of  immoral  positions.  What  is  true  of  the  individual  lesson 
is  also  true  of  the  entire  series  of  lessons  in  which  the 
student  may  be  engaged.  "  'Sufficient  unto  the  day  is  the 
lesson  thereof  is  a  motto  that  is  subversive  of  all  true 
teaching,"  says  the  author  of  the  Primer  on  Teaching.  To 
illustrate  from  the  series  that  we  are  now  following,  we 
saw  how  closely  our  last  topic  of  Adaptation  was  connected 
with  Apperception.  We  found  that  imagination  could  only 
be  considered  intelligently  in  the  light  of  memory,  and  that 
attention  was  best  discussed  in  connection  with  interest. 
A  further  glance  at  the  three  main  parts  which  go  to  make 
up  this  series  shows  that  we  first  discussed,  The  Teacher: 
His  Work,  Qualifications  and  Preparation ;  next,  The  Stu- 
dent: His  Physical,  Mental  and  Spiritual  Nature;  and  that 
we  are  now  considering  The  Lesson:  The  Teacher's  Ap- 
proach to  the  Student.  The  underlying  connection  of  each 
series  of  lessons  undertaken  by  the  student  should  in  this 
clear  and  comprehensive  fashion  be  brought  home  to  him. 
2.  Inductive  and  deductive  methods  of  study.  Induction 
is  a  conclusion  from  a  number  of  observed  facts  or  princi- 
ples. Deduction  is  proceeding  from  known  facts  or  prin- 
ciples to  results.  Or  to  use  the  definitions  of  the  dictionary, 
induction  is  an  ascent  from  particulars  to  generals ;  deduc- 
tion is  a  descent  from  generals  to  particulars.  To  illus- 
trate: we  have  noted  that  the  pendulum  of  a  clock  grows 
longer  in  warm  weather  causing  the  clock  to  run  slower. 
The  railroad  tracks  lengthen  in  warm  weather  filling  up  the 
spaces  between  the  ends  which  are  left  in  the  laying  for 
this  purpose.  A  metal  ball  which  will  just  pass  through  a 
ring  when  it  is  cool,  if  heated  will  be  found  to  be  too  large 
to  go  through  the  ring.  Here  are  three  ordinary  facts 
which  taken  together,  and  in  conjunction  with  a  large 
number  of  similar  facts,  indicate  that  heat  expands  metals. 
This  may  be  regarded  then  as  an  induction  from  a  number 


92  THE    TEACHING    OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

of  observed  facts.  The  apple  falling  from  the  tree,  the  book 
from  the  hand,  the  man  from  the  building,  are  observed 
facts  which  with  others  of  the  same  kind  point  to  the  law 
of  gravity.  This,  too,  was  discovered  inductively.  Deduc- 
tion, on  the  other  hand,  is  the  laying  down  of  a  principle 
or  a  hypothesis  and  an  investigation  for  facts  that  will  prove 
this  principle  or  hypothesis.  The  inductive  or  experimental 
method  is  now  generally  adopted  in  the  scientific  world. 
Applying  this  principle  to  the  study  of  the  Bible,  we  have 
what  is  sometimes  known  as  "Inductive  Bible  Study."  The 
study  of  the  Bible  in  the  past  has  been  too  largely  deduc- 
tive. People  have  come  to  the  Bible  with  preconceived  no- 
tions looking  for  statements  to  confirm  those  notions.  They 
have  laid  down  theological  propositions  and  then  have  gone 
to  the  Bible  for  "proof-texts,"  with  which  to  demonstrate 
those  propositions.  The  inductive  method  of  Bible  study 
leads  one  to  read  the  various  sections  of  which  it  is  made 
up  with  a  purpose  to  learn  what  the  writers  said  and  what 
they  had  in  mind  when  they  said  it.  One  of  the  important 
principles  of  this  method  of  study  is  that  the  text  must  be 
studied  first  and  the  conclusions  must  be  drawn  last.  As  we 
shall  have  occasion  to  note  in  our  study  of  the  Lesson  Study 
and  Teaching  Plan,  in  coming  to  the  Bible  we  are  to  take 
up  the  text  first.  This  will  be  accompanied  by  a  study  of 
individual  words  and  topics,  this  followed  by  classification, 
and  last  of  all  will  come  the  teaching  or  application  of 
the  lesson  to  the  individual  life. 

3.  The  right  order  of  teaching.  Phillips  Brooks  once  ad- 
vised theological  students  to  try  to  interest  their  auditors  in 
a  subject  in  the  same  way  in  which  they  first  became  in- 
terested in  it.  This  has  t3en  called  "the  order  of  discov- 
ery," the  order  in  which  the  human  race  first  learned  these 
facts  and  truths.  That  which  is  first  in  the  order  of  logic 
may  not  always  be  first  in  the  order  of  teaching.  Patterson 
DuBois,  in  commenting  upon  a  discussion  of  the  manner 


METHOD  93 

of  teaching  botany  to  children,  quotes  from  a  writer  in  the 
Popular  Science  Monthly  as  follows:  "Dr.  Jacobi  would 
use  the  flower,  in  beginning  to  teach  children  botany,  be- 
cause it  is  the  most  attractive,  makes  the  largest  impression 
upon  the  senses,  is  easy  of  apprehension,  and  leads  to  the 
appreciation  of  specific  differences.  .  .  Miss  Youmans 
would  begin  with  the  leaf,  on  the  assumption  that  it  is 
simpler  than  the  flower,  and,  in  tracing  its  scientific  rela- 
tions, deeper  intellectual  pleasure  is  received.  .  .  Begin- 
ning with  roots,  as  so  many  systematic  teachers  have  done, 
and  following  with  stem,  leaves,  flowers,  and  ending  with 
fruits  as  the  ultimate  work  of  the  plant,  although  logical 
to  adults,  full  of  regular  sequences,  and  scientific  from 
one  standpoint,  is  unscientific  from  another."  Mr.  DuBois 
also  quotes  a  writer  in  the  Sunday-school  Times  who  tells 
of  the  experience  of  a  high-school  girl  who  tried  to  interest 
her  brother  in  geology  beginning  with  the  story  of  how  the 
earth  was  made,  while  he  was  anxious  to  begin  by  being 
told  how  the  sidewalks  were  made.  The  logical  order  of 
teaching  would  call  for  instruction  in  the  alphabet  and  the 
spelling  of  words  before  learning  to  read.  To-day,  however, 
the  beginner  is  taught  to  read  first  after  which  the  letters 
and  words  have  an  interest  and  relation  which  they  could 
not  have  had  before.  It  follows  from  what  has  been  said 
that  religious  instruction  can  best  be  inculcated  by  follow- 
ing the  order  of  discovery,  the  point  of  contact  with  experi- 
ence, and  not  at  first  by  a  logical  arrangement  of  spiritual 
truths.  This  is  the  order  of  life  rather  than  logic.  This 
is  the  method  of  the  Bible.  Jesus  formulated  no  system  o 
theology.  As  the  student  learns  the  flower  before  he  studies 
botany,  the  stars  before  astronomy,  the  minerals  before 
mineralogy,  so  he  should  be  brought  into  contact  with  re- 
ligious truth  on  the  plane  of  his  own  experience  before 
giving  attention  to  the  arrangement  of  truths  in  logical 
order. 


94  THE    TEACHING    OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

4.  Teaching  maxims.  The  following  maxims  may  serve 
to  summarize  some  of  the  suggestions  that  have  been  offered 
under  Adaptation  and  Method.  These  have  been  gathered 
from  a  number  of  authors  noted  in  the  References  for 
Reading,  and  have  special  application  to  elementary 
teaching : 

Observation  before  reasoning. 
The  concrete  before  the  abstract 
Facts  before  principles. 
Processes  before  rules. 
Particulars  before  generals. 
The  simple  before  the  complex. 
The  known  before  the  unknown. 
Things  before  names. 
The  present  before  the  remote. 
Activity  before  reflection. 
Sensation  before  introspection. 
The  direct  before  the  circuitous. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

*The  Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching.    DuBois,  pp.  49-81. 
Psychology  in  Education.    Roark,  pp.  265-283. 
Teacher's  Hand-Book  of  Psychology.    Sully,  pp.  402-405. 
Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.    Gregory,  pp.  15-27. 
•Primer  on  Teaching.    Adams,  pp.  62-90. 
Elements  of  Pedagogy.    White,  pp.  70-80,  138-139. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

A  great  mass  of  unconnected  facts  is  of  little  value.  What 
Is  important  for  us  is  not  the  number  of  facts  we  collect,  but 
the  number  we  can  use  because  we  have  discovered  the  rela- 
tion in  which  they  stand  to  each  other.  Primer  on  Teaching. 
Adams,  pp.  62-63. 

Mr.  James  Newton  Baskett  wrote:  "Recently  I  attempted 
to  describe  the  oven-bird  to  a  country  boy  who,  I  knew,  haa 
often  seen  it,  but  did  not  know  it.  I  went  through  plumage, 
size,  song,  nest,  etc.,  but  the  case  looked  hopeless.  At  last 
I  mentioned  the  habit  of  alighting  near  the  limb  and  running 
out  toward  its  tip.  His  face  brightened.  'Is  he  a  kind  of  high 
stepper?'  he  asked,  picking  up  his  feet  exactly  as  the  bird  does. 
In  this  way  the  boy  has  become  a  helpful  observer — learning 
how  to  observe.  His  descriptions  are  so  accurate  that  I  often 
diagnose  birds  from  them  before  he  is  through.  He  had  a  new 
interest  in  his  farm  work.  He  could  never  have  got  it  from 
systematic  ornithology."  No  more  can  the  child  get  his  inter- 
est In  religious  truths  through  systematic  theology,  catechisms, 
or  other  adult  forms  of  conventionalized  and  abstract  thought, 


METHOD  95 

or  images  based  on  material  things  with  which  the  child  has 
never  come  into  sense  contact.  The  Point  of  Contact  in  Teach- 
ing. DuBois,  pp.  66-67. 

In  commenting  on  the  course  in  physical  geography  in  Pesta- 
lozzi's  school  Froebel  says:  "Particularly  unpleasant  to  me  was 
the  commencement  of  the  course  which  began  with  an  ac- 
count of  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  although  the  pupils  could 
have  no  conception  of  their  own  as  to  its  nature  or  dimen- 
sions." The  Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching.  DuBois,  p.  69. 

It  is  of  no  use  to  start  with  an  abstract  statement,  motto 
text  or  doctrine  of  any  kind.  Everyone  must  do  his  own 
abstracting.  Out  of  the  concrete,  objective  experiences  of  life 
only  can  we  deduce  or  generalize  our  abstractions  of  knowl- 
edge. The  Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching.  DuBois,  p.  6. 

The  first  fact  which  the  teacher  needs  to  get  firmly  in  mind, 
and  to  keep  aware  of  in  all  his  teaching,  is  that  the  logical 
order  of  development  of  a  subject  is  not  always,  not  even 
often,  the  psychological  order.  The  beginner  must  be  taught 
to  read  before  he  knows  the  alphabet  or  can  spell:  short  sen- 
tences and  words  mean  something  to  children,  letters  do  not. 
Yet  a  logical  method  would  require  the  letters  to  be  first 
learned,  their  combination  into  words  next,  and  last  of  all 
the  building  of  words  into  sentences.  To  teach  arithmetic 
logically  would  be  to  begin  with  the  abstract  ideas  of  unity 
and  number,  and  from  these  to  unfold  all  number  relations 
and  processes.  To  teach  arithmetic  psychologically  is  to  begin 
with  concrete  things,  and  show  how  a  number  of  objects  may 
be  increased  and  diminished.  Psychology  in  Education.  Roark, 
pp.  268-269. 

Deduction  passes  from  the  general  to  the  particular;  in- 
duction from  the  particular  to  the  general.  Deduction  states 
the  rule  and  then  seeks  or  supplies  examples;  induc- 
tion supplies  examples  and  then  seeks  the  rule.  Now  in  teach- 
ing there  is  room  for  both;  each  in  its  own  place.  As  a  rule, 
the  Sunday-school  teacher  is  prone  to  use  the  Deductive  Method 
only.  His  lesson  too  often  consists  in  merely  telling  the  pupil 
certain  things,  and  then  illustrating  by  stories  and  other 
examples.  Primer  on  Teaching.  Adams,  p.  66. 


96  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 


XV.    REVIEWS 

1.  The  elements  of  a  review.    Three  progressive  steps  are 
involved  in  the  reviewing  of  a  lesson:  a  repetition  of  it,  a 
second  view  or  viewing  again  of  it,  and  a  new  view  of  it. 
The  repetition  of  it  may  be,  to  a  certain  extent,  mechanical. 
The  second  view  of  it,  or  a  viewing  again  of  it,  may  com- 
prehend simply  those  elements  which  were  recognized  in 
the  first  view  or  original  learning  of  the  lesson.     This  is 
valuable.     The  new  view  of  it,  however,  seeing  it  in  new 
aspects  and  relations,  is  by  far  the  most  important  phase 
of  reviewing. 

2.  The  importance  of  reviews.     Comparatively  few  un- 
trained teachers  appreciate  the  importance  of  reviews.  With 
some  this  is  simply  the  result  of  neglect  or  thoughtlessness ; 
with  others,  the  positive  feeling  that  time  spent  on  reviews 
is  time  largely  lost.     Trumbull  says,  "The  schools  of  the 
Jesuits,  as  perfected  under  Aquaviva  three  centuries  ago, 
were  quite  in  advance  of  anything  the  world  has  yet  known 
in  the  educational  line;  and  their  power  and  effectiveness 
were  such  as  to  stay,  in  large  measure,  the  progress  of  the 
Protestant  Reformation  in  Europe.    The  methods  of  those 
schools  are  still  worthy  of  imitation  at  many  points.     In 
their  system  of  teaching,  review,  as  a  means  of  fastening 
the  truth  taught,  was  given  a  large  prominence."    On  this 
point  Robert  Herbert  Quick  says :   "One  of  the  maxims  of 
this  system  was,  'Repetition  is  the  mother  of  studies.'  Every 
lesson  was  connected  with  two  repetitions:  one,  before  it 
began,  of  preceding  work,  and  the  other,  at  the  close,  of  the 
work  just  done.    Besides  this,  one  day  a  week  was  devoted 
entirely  to  repetition."     A  teacher's  appreciation  of  the 


REVIEWS  97- 

importance  of  the  review  will  be  measured  to  some  extent 
by  the  time  he  spends  upon  it  in  the  class  sessions.  Gregory 
says  that  the  best  teachers  give  about  one-third  of  each 
lesson  hour  to  reviews.  Another  has  said  that  if  one-half 
the  teaching  time  were  thus  to  be  spent  there  would  be  a 
gain.  Hughes  urges :  "We  must  repeat  and  review,  and  re- 
view and  repeat  until  it  seems  absurd  to  repeat  any  longer, 
and  then  experience  will  show  us  the  necessity  for  repeating 
and  reviewing  again/' 
3.  Objects  of  the  review : 

(1)  The  first  object  of  the  review  is  to  fix  the  lesson  in 
the  mind.     We  have  seen  in  discussing  the  subject  of 
Memory  how  necessary  repetition  is  to  retention.    Even  the 
most  familiar  knowledge  may  apparently  pass  out  of  the 
mind  unless  it  is  refreshed  by  repetition.     Trumbull  tells 
us  that  Dr.  Yung  Wing,  the  Chinese  student,  who  had  his 
second  education  in  America,  after  his  graduation  from 
Yale  College,  when  he  returned  to  his  native  land  found 
himself  under  the  necessity  of  learning  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage over  again  because  it  had  not  been  reviewed  by  him 
in  the  years  of  his  absence  from  China. 

(2)  Reviews  test  the  knowledge  of  the  student  and  show 
what  he  has  learned  and  what  he  has  failed  to  learn  in  a 
lesson  or  a  series  of  lessons.     There  is  no  other  way  of 
accomplishing  this  result  except  by  reviews.    We  have  seen 
in  discussing  the  subject  of  Adaptation  that  not  what  the 
teacher  says  but  what  the  student  comprehends  measures 
the  value  of  a  lesson  to  him.    So  it  is  not  what  the  student 
learns  but  what  he  remembers  that  measures  the  value  of  a 
lesson  to  him.    As  Gregory  says,  "Not  what  a  man  gains 
but  what  he  keeps  constitutes  his  wealth." 

(3)  Reviews  afford  a  new  view  of  a  lesson  or  series  of 
lessons.    The  first  contact  with  a  lesson  may  bring  out  only 
one  aspect  of  the  truth,  one  relation  to  the  life  of  the 
student.     A  new  view  may  add  important  knowledge  of 


98  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

other  aspects  and  relations  of  the  subject.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  the  study  of  the  Bible.  No  book  repays  more 
amply  for  reviewing  than  the  Bible.  Its  truths  are  so  many- 
sided  and  so  profound  that  not  the  first  nor  the  second  nor 
the  third  survey  reveals  them  in  all  their  aspects  and  rela- 
tions to  life.  How  often  the  preaching  of  a  second  sermon 
from  the  same  text  will  bring  to  the  mind  suggestions  and 
inspirations  that  were  entirely  absent  from  the  first. 

(4)  The  review  of  a  lesson  or  series  of  lessons  oftentimes 
reveals  the  orderly  progression  of  events  or  truths,  and 
enables  the  student  to  trace  their  relationship  without  the 
confusion  of  details  which  sometimes  comes  with  the  first 
study  of  a  lesson.     The  review  in  this  particular  is  like 
standing  on  an  eminence  from  which  the  principal  features 
in  the  landscape  may  be  seen  emerging  more  clearly  and 
definitely  from  the  less  prominent  objects. 

(5)  Reviews  test  the  teacher's  work.     This  constitutes 
not  the  least  value  of  reviews.     The  methods  of  many  a 
teacher  have  been  revolutionized,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the 
discovery  through  a  review  that  the  work  of  the  class- 
room had  failed  to  penetrate  the  mind  of  the  student.   The 
earlier  this  discovery  is  made  in  a  course  of  study  the 
better.    Hence  the  importance  of  commencing  reviews  early 
in  a  series. 

(6)  Reviews  awaken  interest  and  attention.     The  new 
aspects  of  the  truth  that  are  brought  out,  the  facility  in 
handling  the  truth  of  a  lesson,  that  comes  only  with  its 
perfect  acquisition  through  repetition,  give  zest  to  the 
further  prosecution  of  a  lesson  or  series  of  lessons  by  the 
student  and  keep  him  constantly  alive  to  their  possibilities. 

4.  The  conduct  of  reviews : 

( 1 )  Reviews  are  in  order :  before  each  lesson  in  a  survey 
of  the  previous  lesson;  in  the  middle  of  each  lesson;  at 
the  close  of  each  lesson ;  at  the  close  of  a  series  of  lessons ; 
at  the  end  of  a  month  or  a  quarter  or  a  year. 


REVIEWS  99 

(2)  The  review  is  pre-eminently  the  student's  exercise. 
Here  above  all  other  places  the  lesson  should  not  degenerate 
into  a  lecture  by  the  teacher. 

(3)  The  reviews  should  be  prepared  by  the  teacher  and 
student  as  carefully  as  the  original  lesson. 

(4)  No  attempt  should  be  made  in  the  review  to  cove: 
all  the  ground  covered  in  the  original  lesson.     Emphasis 
should  be  laid  on  those  facts  or  teachings  which  are  along 
the  main  trend  of  the  lesson  or  series.    Special  attention 
should  be  given  in  the  review  to  those  portions  which  the 
teacher  has  had  the  greatest  desire  to  have  the  members 
of  the  class  appreciate  in  the  original  lesson. 

(5)  Emphasis  should  be  laid  in  the  review  on  applica- 
tions of  the  lessons  to  the  life  of  the  student  rather  than 
on  illustrations  or  further  development  of  truths.    Note  the 
use  of  this  principle  by  Jesus  and  Paul — John  21:15-17; 
Phil.  3  :1,  and  4 :4,  5. 

(6)  A  selection  of  the  truths  of  lessons  to  be  emphasized 
in  review  will  be  brought  more  clearly  to  the  mind  by  the 
use  of  the  blackboard.    Care  should  be  exercised,  however, 
not  to  allow  ingenious  designs  to  overshadow  the  truths  to 
be  conveyed. 

(7)  Brief  and  spirited  drills  of  the  members  of  the  class 
on  phases  of  the  lesson,  important  texts  and  teachings,  are 
always  in  order,  and  are  important  applications  of  the  rule 
of  repetition. 

5.  Previews.  A  preview  is  a  view  beforehand  of  a  lesson 
or  series  of  lessons  for  the  purpose  of  getting  a  bird's-eye 
view  of  the  course  to  be  covered  and  the  ends  to  be  ac- 
complished. It  is  quite  as  important  in  starting  out  on  a 
lesson  that  the  teacher  should  know  where  he  is  going  and 
what  he  is  aiming  at  as  it  is  to  review  the  ground  which 
he  has  covered  at  the  completion  of  the  course. 

The  value  of  a  preview  is  found:  (1)  In  helping  the 
mind  to  establish  the  relation  between  the  lessons  of  a  series, 


100  THE   TEACHING   OP   BIBLE   CLASSES 

or,  as  in  the  case  of  a  single  lesson,  in  the  selection  of 
the  more  important  phases  of  the  truth  to  be  emphasized. 
(2)  In  helping  the  memory  to  retain  the  truths  inculcated 
by  reason  of  the  association  which  is  traced  among  them 
through  the  preview. 

6.  Examinations.  Examinations  are  a  form  of  review 
having  special  reference  to  the  testing  of  the  student  as  to 
what  he  has  learned  or  failed  to  learn  in  a  series  of  lessons. 
Some  prejudice  has  existed  against  the  conduct  of  written 
examinations  in  connection  with  Bible  study  courses,  but, 
as  Trumbull  has  said,  "Bible  knowledge  is  to  be  secured 
through  the  same  mental  processes  as  any  other  knowledge, 
and  the  testing  of  the  knowledge  gained  by  a  scholar  in  the 
study  of  the  Bible  must  be  by  the  same  method  as  his 
testing  in  any  other  department  of  knowledge."  There 
seems  to  be  no  good  and  sufficient  reason  why  written  exam- 
inations at  the  close  or  during  the  progress  of  Bible  study 
courses,  should  not  be  conducted  with  the  same  adherence 
to  rigid  standards  as  is  observed  in  the  conduct  of  exam- 
inations in  any  other  department  of  study.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  courses  of  study  that  aim  at  a  systematic  and 
thorough  instruction  in  Bible  knowledge. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

•Teaching  and  Teachers.    Trumbull,  pp.  199-235. 

*The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.    Gregory,  pp.  118-134. 

How  to  Teach  the  Bible.    Gregory,  pp.  69-74. 

The  Elements  of  Pedagogy.    White,  pp.  147-148,  193-209. 

Sunday-school  Teachers'  Normal  Course.    Peaae,  Vol.  2,  pp. 

•-4-167. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

The  true  measure  of  your  scholar's  knowledge  on  any  sub- 
ject of  study,  is  not  what  you  have  declared  to  him,  not  what 
he  peemed  to  understand  of  your  teaching,  but  what  he  can 
restate  to  you  in  his  own  language  as  you  and  he  go  over 
it  again  together.  It  is  a  very  common  thing  for  us  to  say, 
when  we  are  asked  about  one  thing  or  another — about  some- 
thing that  we  have  often  had  in  our  minds — that  we  know  all 
about  it,  but  cannot  express  our  knowledge  in.  words.  As  a- 
rule,  this  is  not  a  true  statement  of  the  case.  If  we  have 
definite  knowledge  on  a  given  subject  of  inquiry,  we  can  ex- 


REVIEWS 

press  that  knowledge  in  words;  and  just  to  the  extent  of  our 
inability  to  express  ourselves  are  we  lacking  in  deflniteness  of 
knowledge.  The  truth  is,  that  we  have  a  good  many  vague 
ideas  on  many  a  subject,  which  we  confound  with  real  knowl- 
edge of  that  subject.  And  so  it  is  with  our  scholars.  Teach- 
ing and  Teachers.  Trumbull,  pp.  208-209. 

Not  what  a  man  gains,  but  what  he  keeps,  constitutes  his 
wealth.  So  in  learning  it  is  not  the  lesson  learned,  but  the 
knowledge  that  we  retain,  which  makes  us  wise  and  intelli- 
gent. How  to  Teach  the  Bible.  Gregory,  p.  69. 

Our  images  tend  to  grow,  in  distinctness,  completeness,  and 
in  readiness  to  appear,  with  the  number  of  repetitions  of  the 
sense  presentations.  Where  the  repetition  of  the  presentation, 
itself  is  impossible,  the  renewed  reproduction  of  it  may  serve, 
even  though  less  effectually,  to  bring  about  the  same  result. 
Thus  by  recalling  in  talk  with  a  friend  some  experience  in 
which  we  have  shared,  the  memory-images  are  kept  alive.  Re- 
peating verses  inaudibly  helps  to  some  extent  to  preserve  the 
memory  of  them.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  emphasize  the 
point  that  in  training  the  memory  a  judicious  use  should  be 
made  of  the  principle  of  repetition.  Such  repetition  enters 
into  the  very  process  of  giving  instruction.  Thus  when  a 
teacher  after  each  step  in  an  oral  lesson  writes  down  the 
points  reached  on  the  blackboard,  he  introduces  a  new  sense- 
vehicle,  the  eye,  and  so  tends  to  fix  the  subject  by  a  form  of 
repetition  which  avoids  monotony,  and  introduces  a  new  link 
of  association.  Repetition  may  also  be  secured  by  the  even- 
ing work,  writing  out  notes,  and  what  should  go  with  this, 
a  talk  about  the  lesson  with  an  intelligent  parent.  In  all 
these  ways  the  value  of  repetition  is  realized  without  its 
monotony.  The  Teachers'  Hand-Book  of  Psychology.  Sully,  pp. 
215  and  254. 

A  review  is  something  more  than  a  repetition.  A  machine 
may  repeat  a  process,  but  only  an  intelligent  agent  can  re- 
view it.  The  repetition  done  by  a  machine  is  a  second  move- 
ment precisely  like  the  first;  a  repetition  by  the  mind  is  the 
rethinking  of  a  thought.  It  is  necessarily  a  review.  It  is 
more:  it  involves  fresh  conceptions  and  new  associations, 
and  brings  an  increase  of  facility  and  power.  The  Seven  Laws 
of  Teaching.  Gregory,  p.  119. 

When  we  enter  a  strange  house  we  know  not  where  to  look 
for  its  several  rooms,  and  the  attention  is  drawn  to  a  few  of 
the  more  singular  and  conspicuous  features  of  furniture.  We 
must  return  again  and  again,  and  resurvey  the  scene  with 
eyes  grown  familiar  to  the  place  and  to  the  light,  before  the 
whole  plan  of  the  building  and  the  uses  of  all  the  rooms  with 
their  furniture  will  stand  clearly  revealed.  So  one  must  re- 
turn again  and  again  to  a  lesson  if  he  would  see  all  there  is  in 
it,  and  come  to  a  true  and  vivid  understanding  of  its  meaning. 
We  have  all  noticed  how  much  we  find  that  is  new  and  inter- 
esting in  reading  again  some  old  and  familiar  volume.  The 
Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.  Gregory,  pp.  120-121. 


102  THE    TEACHING    OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 


XVI.    THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING 

1.  Methods  of  instruction.  Of  the  methods  of  conduct- 
ing the  lesson  in  the  classroom  there  are  four  that  should 
have  special  attention.  They  may  be  designated  roughly 
as  the  lecture,  the  seminar,  the  recitation  or  topic,  and  the 
question  or  conversational  method. 

(1)  The  lecture  method.  By  this  method  the  teacher 
proceeds  with  an  orderly  and,  for  the  most  part,  uninter- 
rupted presentation  of  the  thought  of  the  lesson.  This 
method  calls  for  little  or  no  preparation  in  advance  by  the 
student.  Some  of  the  advantages  of  the  lecture  method  of 
teaching  are : 

That  it  enables  the  teacher  to  present  in  somewhat  satis- 
factory form  the  result  of  his  own  investigations  of  the 
subject  and  permits  him  to  make  evident  the  connection  in 
the  line  of  thought  he  is  following. 

That  it  allows  for  the  play  of  his  own  personality. 

That  it  enables  the  teacher  to  reach  a  greater  number 
of  auditors  and  is  therefore  best  suited  to  a  large  class. 

That  it  gives  little  opportunity  for  the  members  of  the 
class  who  are  prepared  to  precipitate  controversial  ques- 
tions and  half-baked  theories  on  the  class. 

That  it  results  in  saving  of  time. 

Each  of  these  advantages,  however,  should  be  tested  in 
the  light  of  the  object  to  be  accomplished  in  the  students. 

Some  of  the  disadvantages  of  the  method  are : 

That  it  permits  the  attention  of  the  student  to  wander 
from  the  subject. 


THE   ART   OF   QUESTIONING  103 

That  it  often  fails  to  excite  his  mental  activity. 

That  it  affords  no  means  to  the  teacher  for  learning  the 
capacities  of  the  student,  or  to  discover  whether  he  is  gain- 
ing knowledge  and  power  from  the  subjects  that  are  pre- 
sented. 

Whatever  may  be  the  adaptation  of  this  method  of 
teaching  to  more  mature  classes  of  students,  it  would 
seem,  on  the  whole,  as  though  by  itself  it  were  not  suited 
to  the  instruction  of  younger  students  or  those  of  inferior 
mental  training. 

(2)  The  seminar  method.    By  this  method  the  members 
of  the  class  are  assigned  topics  in  the  line  of  which  they 
make  original  investigations  and  report  their  findings  to  the 
class  instead  of  being  called  upon  to  make  recitations  from 
specified  portions  of  books.     It  is  almost  needless  to  add 
that  this  method  used  exclusively  is  only  suited  to  more 
mature  students  and  those  with  trained  minds,  although 
with  older  boys  and  young  men  it  is  possible  to  make  such 
original  investigation  an  incidental  feature  of  class  work. 

(3)  Recitation  or  topic  method.     By  this  method  the 
student  is  expected  to  prepare  stated  lessons  from  a  text- 
book and  to  present  what  he  has  learned  by  topics  as  they  are 
called  for  by  the  teacher.    The  advantages  of  this  method 
are: 

That  the  student  is  trained  thereby,  in  the  expression  of 
thought,  if  he  be  stimulated  to  translate  the  language  of 
the  book  into  his  own  words. 

That  it  furnishes  the  student  with  a  more  connected  and 
orderly  conception  of  the  arrangement  of  the  lesson. 

That,  provided  the  text-book  is  adequate,  the  short- 
comings of  the  teacher  are  supplemented  by  the  thorough 
and  systematic  presentation  of  the  subject  in  the  book. 

The  disadvantages  of  this  method  are : 

That  the  students  are  confronted  thereby  with  the  temp- 
tation to  mechanical  and  parrot-like  presentation  of  the  Ian- 


104  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

guage  of  the  book  without  any  adequate  apprehension  of  its 
meaning. 

That  is  brings  to  the  teacher  a  temptation  to  be  listless 
and  indifferent,  or,  in  other  words,  that  greater  responsi- 
bility is  thrown  upon  the  text-book  and  less  on  the  in- 
structor. 

(4)  The  question  or  conversational  method.  By  this 
method,  after  careful  preparation  by  the  teacher  and  stu- 
dent, the  former  elicits  the  knowledge  that  the  student  has 
of  the  subject  in  as  orderly  a  fashion  as  possible  by  a  series 
of  questions,  often  resulting  in  the  play  of  conversation 
between  teacher  and  student.  The  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  this  method  will  be  considered  in  detail  be- 
low. Before  proceeding  to  a  discussion  of  these  it  may 
be  said  at  once  that  no  one  method  should  be  employed 
exclusively,  but  that  for  the  average  class  of  boys  and  young 
men  up  to  eighteen  years  of  age  a  wise  combination  of  the 
recitation  method  with  the  question  method,  with  an  em- 
phasis on  the  use  of  questions,  seems  to  be  the  best. 

2.  Advantages  of  the  question  method : 

(1)  By  the  question  method  the  interest  and  attention 
of  the  student  are  aroused  and  his  self-activity  is  stimulated. 
The  question  method,  therefore,  conforms  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  definitions  of  teaching  in  our  first  lesson,  and 
especially  to  the  fundamental  necessity  for  attention  noted 
in  our  discussion  of  that  subject.  For  untrained  or  im- 
mature minds  nothing  so  quickly  stimulates  the  self-activity 
of  the  student  and  quickens  and  retains  his  interest  and  at- 
tention of  a  well-placed  question.  Gregory  well  says :  "The 
true  stimulant  of  the  human  mind  is  a  question,  and  the 
object  or  event  that  does  not  raise  any  question  will  stir 
no  thought.  Question  is  not  therefore  merely  one  of  the 
modes  of  teaching,  it  is  the  whole  of  teaching;  it  is  the 
excitation  of  the  self-activities  to  their  work  of  discovering 
truth,  learning  facts,  knowing  the  unknown/' 


THE    ART    OF    QUESTIONING  1Q5 

(2)  For  the  same  reason  tke  question  method  helps  the 
student  to  retain  knowledge  conveyed  to  him.     We  have 
seen  that  interest  and  attention  must  precede  memory.  The 
information,  therefore,  which  is  brought  to  the  student  at 
the  point  of  a  question  will  more  probably  be  held  in  mind. 

(3)  The  question  method  brings  out  a  variety  of  thought 
on  the  subject  of  the  lesson.    The  class  receives  thereby  not 
simply  the  thought  which  it  was  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher 
to  elicit  by  his  question,  but  a  thought  which  is  sometimes 
even  fresher  and  more  vigorous  and  which  would  have  been 
lost  to  the  class  had  not  a  question  set  in  motion.the  mental 
activity  of  some  student 

(4) .  The  question  method  seems  to  be  the  only  method  of 
testing  adequately  the  knowledge  possessed  by  the  student. 
Nothing  can  be  more  deceptive  than  the  apparent  attention 
and  appreciation  of  the  members  of  a  class  who  are  re- 
ceiving instruction  by  the  lecture  method.  The  expres- 
sion of  the  face,  the  eye,  the  whole  attention  of  the  stu- 
dent,, may  betoken  intelligent  .appreciation  of  the  subject, 
but  a  well-directed  question  will  at  once  strip  off  the  mask 
and  display  the  lack  of  knowledge  beneath. 

This  was  the  method  and  this  the  purpose  of  Socrates. 
Although  one  of  the  greatest  teachers  that  ever  lived,  he 
did  not  lecture  nor  require  his  students  to  recite.  He  sim- 
ply asked  them  questions.  If  they  were  conceited,  he  asked 
them  questions  which  showed  them  their  ignorance,  and  put 
them  in  a  frame  of  mind  to  learn.  If  they  were  sincere  in 
their  search  for  truth,  he  asked  them  questions  which  set 
them  on  their  way  and  helped  them  to  find  that  for  which 
they  were  looking.  The  chapter  of  John  Adams,  in  his 
"Primer  on  Teaching,"  on  the  Socratic  method,  would  re- 
pay a  careful  reading. 

(5)  For  the  same  reason  the  question  method  brings  the 
teacher  into  closer  contact  with  the  student  and  reveals 
to  him  not  only  what  knowledge  the  student  actually  pos- 


106  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

sesses,  but  his  methods  of  thinking  and,  in  some  cases,  the 
purposes  of  his  life. 

(6)  The  question  method  oftentimes  arouses  the  con- 
science. Jesus  often  used  the  method  with  this  result.  To 
the  twelve  Jesus  said,  when  many  had  deserted  Him, 
"Would  ye  also  go  away  ?"  which  brought  a  protestation  of 
loyalty  from  Simon  Peter  (John  6:  66-68).  Again,  He 
asked  which  of  the  three,  priest,  Levite  or  Samaritan, 
proved  neighbor  to  the  man  stripped  by  the  robbers,  and  on 
receiving  the  answer  said,  "Go  tliou  and  do  likewise"  (Luke 
10:  35-37).  Of  similar  import  was  the  question,  "What 
shall  it  profit  a  man  if  he  shall  gain  the  whole  world  and 
lose  his  own  life  ?"• 

3.  Disadvantages  of  the  question  method : 

(1)  The  chief  defect  of  the  question  method  is  that 
while  it  conduces  to  careful  preparation  to  a  larger  degree 
than  the  lecture  method,  it  does  not  conduce  to  such  prep- 
aration, to  as  large  an  extent,  as  the  recitation  method. 
This  should  be  guarded  by  the  teacher  by  a  wise  combina- 
tion of  the  recitation  and  question  methods  and  making  sure 
that  the  questions  lead  the  student  over  a  specified  portion 
of  a  subject  which  he  finds  evolved  in  the  text-book. 

(2)  The  question  method  does  not  develop  the  powers  of 
self-expression  by  the  student  as  does  the  recitation  method. 
Too  often  the  question  is  answered  in  incomplete  sentences 
and  with  much  less  attempt  at  thoroughness  than  that  which 
characterizes  the  formal  recitation.    Here,  too,  the  teacher 
must  combine  the  two  methods  and  supplement  the  deficien- 
cies of  the  question  method  by  requiring  intelligent  and 
thorough  statements  in  reply  to  his  questions. 

(3)  It  is  doubtless  more  difficult  to  follow  the  orderly 
arrangement  of  the  subject  when  the  information  is  elicited 
by  questions.    This  defect  may  be  remedied  to  a  considera- 
ble extent  by  the  teacher  preparing  his  questions  with  a  due 
regard  to  the  systematic  unfolding  of  the  subject,  and  the 


THE    ART   OF    QUESTIONING 

student,  by  careful  preparation  in  the  text  of  the  subject, 
familiarizing  himself  as  though  for  a  recitation  with  its 
progressive  development. 

(See  References  for  Reading  at  the  end  of  Lesson  XVII.) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

It  is  only  the  unskilful  and  self-seeking  teacher  who  pre- 
fers to 'hear  his  own  voice  in  endless  talk,  rather  than  watch 
the  working  of  his  pupil's  thoughts.  The  Seven  Laws  of 
Teaching.  Gregory,  p.  97. 

The  chief  and  almost  constant  violation  of  this  law  of 
teaching  is  the  attempt  to  force  lessons  into  pupils'  minds 
by  simply  telling.  "I  have  told  you  ten  times,  and  yet  you 
don't  know!"  exclaimed  a  teacher  of  this  sort.  Poor  teacher, 
can  you  not  remember  that  knowing  comes  by  thinking,  not 
by  telling.  The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.  Gregory,  p.  102. 

The  awakening  and  stirring  power  of  a  skilful  question 
lies  largely  in  this  principle  of  the  shock.  It  startles  the  in- 
telligence as  'with  an  impinging  blow.  The  ordinary  questions 
read  from  the  'book,  where  the  pupils  have  already  seen  and 
answered  them  may  have  their  uses,  but  they  lack  all  power 
to  startle  and  stir  the  mind.  They  simply  call  for  the  repeti- 
tion of  thoughts  already  studied  and  known.  To  produce  its 
highest  effect,  the  question  must  have  the  element  of  the  un- 
expected in  it.  The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.  Gregory,  pp. 
37-38. 

Instruction  may  be  given,  indeed,  without  the  use  of  the 
question;  but  if  one  will  verify  the  results  of  instruction,  and 
ascertain  precisely  the  amount  and  character  of  his  pupils' 
comprehension  of  a  subject,  he  must  resort  to  the  questibn. 
Many  teachers,  finding  it  easier  for  themselves,  and  perhaps 
more  interesting  for  their  pupils,  adopt  the  lecture  system, 
and  in  familiar  talks  give  to  their  classes  whatever  they 
wish  to  communicate.  Pleased  with  the  apparent  interest  and 
attention  with  which  their  instructions  are  received,  they 
rashly  conclude  that  they  have  discovered  the  true  way  of 
teaching.  A  few  questions  carefully  put  would  speedily  unde- 
ceive them,  and  show  them  how  imperfect  and  fragmentary  the 
conceptions  which  their  pupils  have  formed.  How  to  Teach 
the  Bible.  Gregory,  pp.  57-58. 

This  was  the  idea  of  Socrates,  who,  when  he  would  teach, 
always  began  his  work  by  asking  questions  of  his  scholars, 
in  order  to  open  their  minds,  and  to  secure  their  co-work  with 
him  in  the  teaching-process;  and  who  insisted  that  he  who 
would  be  a  'learner  must  not  merely  be  a  listener  and  a  re- 
citer, but  must  also  be  "one  who  searches  out  for  himself." 
Teaching  and  Teachers.  Trumbull,  p.  94. 

Mr.  Gall  introduced  the  plan  of  a  "limited  lesson,"  includ- 
ing a  few  verses  of  Scripture  to  be  made  the  subject  of 
simple  questioning,  with  a  view  to  enable  the  scholar  to  kuow 


108  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE    CLASSES 

what  those  verses  declared,  and  to  express  his  understanding 
of  them  in  his  own  words.  From  this  beginning  our  entire 
modern  system  of  Sunday-school  teaching — including  all  our 
question-books  and  lesson-helps — took  its  start.  And  the 
sound  principles  on  which  this  method  rested  ought  not  to 
be  lost  sight  of,  at  any  stage  of  our  progress.  Teaching  and 
Teachers.  Trumbull,  p.  177. 

Lord  Bacon  said  "A  wise  question  is  the  half  of  knowledge." 
Art  of  Questioning.  Fitch,  p.  56. 

It  is  only  when  the  questioning  spirit  has  been  fully  awak- 
ened, and  the  power  and  habit  of  raising  questions  have  been 
largely  developed,  that  the  teaching  process  may  give  way 
to  the  lecture  plan,  and  the  student  may  be  turned  into  the 
listener.  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.  Gregory,  p.  99. 


THE   ART   OF   QUESTIONING  109 


XVII.     THE  AET  OF  QUESTIONING  (Concluded.) 

1.  The  preparation  of  questions.     He  makes  a  mistake 
who  thinks  that  the  conduct  of  a  class  session  by  the  ques- 
tion method  is  the  easiest  form  of  teaching.    No  method  is 
more  difficult.    We  rightly  speak  of  the  art  of  questioning. 
It  is  an  art  that  is  secured  only  by  the  most  careful  study 
and  the  most  patient  and  persistent  practice.    Woe  be  unto 
that  teacher  who  thinks  that  the  question  method  may  be 
used  to  cover  up  a  lack  of  careful  preparation  on  his  own 
part  for  the  lesson.    Even  the  writing  out  of  questions  in 
advance  need  not  be  considered  too  painstaking  or  methodi- 
cal a  preparation  of  the  lesson.    Trumbull  tells  us  that  "it 
is  a  matter  of  history,  that  when  Dr.  Chalmers  was  Profes- 
sor of  Moral  Philosophy  in  St.  Andrew's  University,  he  had 
a  Sunday-school  of  the  poorer  class  of  children  in  his  neigh- 
borhood, and  that  he  was  accustomed  to  write  out  carefully 
the  questions  he  would  ask  those  children  on  the  Sunday's 
lesson."    While  the  questions  should  not  be  read  in  the  class 
session,  the  very  writing  of  them  contributes  to  exactness 
and  to  orderly  progression  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.    The 
teacher  will  find  questions  that  may  have  been  prepared  by 
the  authors  of  the  courses  he  may  be  following  suggestive 
and  helpful  in  preparing  his  own  questions,  but  should  not 
slavishly  adopt  them  for  his  own  use. 

2.  Characteristics  of  effective  questions : 

( 1 )  Questions  to  be  effective  must  be  clear,  and  clearness 
involves  simplicity,  conciseness  and  defmiteness.  All  the 
powers  of  the  student  should  be  reserved  for  the  answering 
of  the  question,  and  he  should  not  be  called  upon  to  spend 


HO  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE    CLASSES 

time  and  effort  in  deciphering  the  obscure  language  of  a 
question.  "Nothing,"  says  Fitch,  "discourages  and  depresses 
a  teacher  more,  or  sooner  destroys  the  interest  of  the  chil- 
dren in  a  lesson,  than  the  asking  of  questions  which  they 
cannot  answer."  But  simplicity  does  not  mean  that  ques- 
tions should  be  so  easy  as  to  call  for  no  thought  in  answer- 
ing them.  Questions  may  be  so  easy  as  to  produce  ridicule, 
while  the  question  that  is  most  simple  in  form  may  call  for 
the  most  profound  reply.  Among  questions  that  are  too 
simple  may  be  instanced  those  which  call  only  for  the  an- 
swer Yes  or  No,  or  those  which  have  been  designated  as 
leading  questions,  i.  e.,  those  questions  whose  form  suggests 
the  answer  to  be  given.  Especially  should  this  be  avoided 
on  points  with  which  the  student  is  supposed  to  be  familiar. 
For  the  sake  of  simplicity  the  question  should  be  concise, 
and  not  too  long  or  involved.  For  a  similar  reason  it  should 
be  definite.  Definiteness  of  thought  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  will  produce  definiteness  in  answers. 

(2)  Questions  to  be  effective  must  be  arranged  in  such 
an  order  as  to  suggest  the  progressive  and  systematic  devel- 
opment of  the  subject  and  enable  the  student  to  see  the 
ground  which  he  is  covering  and,  at  the  close,  the  end  which 
all  the  time  the  teacher  has  had  in  view.    In  order  that  the 
questions  may  contribute  to  the  purpose  of  the  lesson  they 
should  be  so  arranged  as  to  lead  to  a  spiritual  result. 

(3)  Questions  should  be  suggestive.     We  should  here 
distinguish  between  questions  which  are  asked  for  the  sake 
of  instruction  and  those  which  are  propounded  for  the  pur- 
pose of  testing  the  student's  knowledge.    We  have  already 
uttered  a  warning  against  leading  questions  and  those  which 
suggest  the  answer.    Nevertheless,  questions  should  be  sug- 
gestive of  fields  of  thought  to  the  student  and  set  in  motion 
his  mental  and  spiritual  activities.    The  best  books  are  the 
suggestive  books.  In  some  cases,  indeed,  where  ground  new 
to  the  student  is  being  covered,  the  question  may  neces- 


THE   ART    OF    QUESTIONING  HI 

earily  suggest  the  clew  to  the  answer.  The  author  of  the 
Primer  on  Teaching  tells  us  that  there  was  a  reason  why 
Socrates  should  have  demanded  that  everything  should  be 
elicited  from  the  student,  because  of  his  belief  that  all 
knowledge  was  only  a  remembering  of  things  that  men  had 
known  in  some  former  existence,  but  to-day  the  student 
should  not  be  expected  at  the  point  of  a  question  to  evolve 
from  his  inner  consciousness  knowledge  to  which  he  has  not 
yet  been  introduced.  Fitch  in  his  Art  of  Questioning  tells 
of  an  eminent  teacher,  who  used  to  say  of  the  interrogative 
method,  that  by  it  he  first  questioned  the  knowledge  Mo 
the  minds  of  the  children,  and  then  questioned  it  out  of 
them  again.  Even  questions  which  are  asked  in  order  to 
test  the  student's  knowledge  of  the  subject  should  contribute 
to  the  great  work  of  instruction  that  the  teacher  has  in 
hand.  T6  that  end  they  should  be  constructive.  They 
should  not  be  frivolous,  nor  on  the  other  hand  should  they 
be  entangling  and  controversial. 

The  teacher  should  never  forget  that  he  is,  first  of  all,  a 
teacher,  and  that  his  work  as  examiner  is  simply  to  help 
him  in  his  work  of  teaching. 

3.  The  putting  of  questions.  The  following  suggestions, 
though  brief,  may  be  profitable  in  indicating  the  methods 
of  putting  questions.  These  suggestions  have  to  do  rather 
with  the  manner  than  the  matter  of  the  questions. 

(1)  Propound  the  question  first  and  call  the  name  of  the 
student  who  is  to  answer  afterwards.    This  will  insure  the 
attention  of  all  because  of  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  person 
who  is  to  answer.     No  intimation  should  be  given  to  the 
student  who  is  expected  to  reply  even  by  looking  at  him 
while  the  question  is  being  framed. 

(2)  Questions  should  not  be  asked  of  members  of  the 
class  in  regular  rotation,  either  in  alphabetical  order  or  in 
the  order  of  their  seating.    In  order  to  insure  an  opportun- 
ity for  all  to  recite,  the  names  of  members  of  the  class  might 


112  THE    TEACHING    OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

be  written  on  slips,  shuffled  together  and  then  drawn  out  at 
random.  Even  this  plan  should  not  be  followed  with  too 
great  regularity  for  reasons  that  will  appear  in  the  follow- 
ing suggestion. 

(3)  Address  questions  to  the  inattentive,  but  do  not 
repeat  the  question  if  in  their  inattention  they  have  not 
heard  it. 

(4)  Questions  should  be  put  with  promptness  and  an- 
imation.    Alert  questions  will  stimulate  prompt  replies. 
While  questions  should  follow  one  another  without  delay, 
reasonable  time  should  be  given  for  an  intelligent  reply. 

(5)  Questions  should  be  presented  without  the  use  of  a 
text-book  in  which  they  may  be  printed,  or  paper  on  which 
they  may  have  been  written. 

(6)  Commence  the  lesson  with  the  simplest  questions. 
Give  an  opportunity  for  the  mental  machinery  to  get  un- 
der motion. 

(7)  Address  questions  in  a  pleasant  manner.     Impa- 
tience should  not  be  displayed  over  stupid  replies  or  evi- 
dences of  ignorance.  Give  due  weight  to  all  replies,  whether 
correct  or  only  approximately  correct.     Do  not  greet  a 
wrong  answer  with  an  abrupt  expression,  or  emphasize  it 
by  repeating  it.    Slide  over  it  easily  and  press  for  another 
reply.    Do  not  gaze  or  stare  at  the  student  who  is  answering 
the  question. 

(8)  Persist  with  patience  until  the  answer  to  a  given 
question  is  secured  from  some  member  of  the  class.    The 
form  of  the  question  may  be  modified  if  necessary,  but  the 
teacher  should  not  be  impatient  to  furnish  the  answer  to  a 
question  which  he  has  propounded  to  the  class. 

(9)  Elliptical  questions  are  in  order,  provided  they  are 
not  used  too  frequently,  and  provided,  also,  that  that  por- 
tion of  the  statement  which  is  left  for  the  student  to  supply 
is  an  important  part  of  it — for  example,  "If  any  man  suf- 
fer as  a  Christian  let  him  not  be    *    *    *    " 


THE    ART    OF    QUESTIONING  H3 

(10)  In  the  teaching  of  classes,  where  answers  may  not 
reasonably  be  expected,  the  instruction  may  be  couched  in 
the  form  of  questions  which  the  leader  will  answer  himself, 
and  in  this  way  some  of  the  advantages  of  the  question 
method  be  reaped. 

(11)  In  the  combination  of  the  lecture  method  and  the 
recitation  method,  the  rule  should  be  as  Trumbull  suggests, 
first  questions,  then  comments. 

(12)  Every  effort  should  be  made  by  the  teacher  to 
bring  about  a  questioning  attitude  in  the  classroom.     The 
students  should  be  encouraged  to  express  their  questions 
to  the  teacher,  and  also  to  one  another.    Dr.  Stalker  says, 
"Socrates  asked  questions  which  his  disciples  tried  to  an- 
swer.   Jesus  provoked  his  disciples  to  ask  questions  which 
he  answered." 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING.— LESSONS  XVI.  AND  XVII. 

*Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.   Gregory,  pp.  37-38,  96-104,  113-114. 
How  to  Teach  the  Bible.   Gregory,  pp.  57-62. 
Teaching  and  Teachers.    Trumbull,  pp.  176-196. 
*The  Art  of  Questioning.    Fitch.     (10  cents.) 
The  Art  of  Securing  Attention.    Fitch,  pp.  54-55. 
Mistakes  in  Teaching.    Hughes,  pp.  72-73. 
Securing  and  Retaining  Attention.    Hughes,  pp.  59-62. 
Elements  of  Pedagogy.    White,  pp.  178-192. 
*Primer  on  Teaching.   Adams,  pp.  90-116. 
Principles  and  Ideals   for   the  Sunday-school.      Burton   & 
Mathews,  pp.  45-59. 

Normal  Course.    Pease,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  146-149. 
Revised  Normal  Lessons.    Hurlbut,  pp.  93-96. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

Only  through  his  own  full  knowledge  of  the  subject  can  he 
understand  the  difficulties  met  by  the  pupil,  or  be  able  to  de- 
termine when  the  pupil  has  mastered  the  lesson,  and  to  follow 
it  with  thorough  drills  and  reviews.  As  well  insist  that  a 
general  need  know  nothing  of  a  battle-field  because  he  is  not  to 
do  the  actual  fighting,  as  that  a  teacher  may  get  on  with 
slight  knowledge  because  his  pupil  must  do  the  studying. 
The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.  Gregory,  p.  97. 

We  may  take  a  hint,  I  think,  from  the  practice  of  the  bar  in 
this  respect;  and,  especially  in  questioning  by  way  of  exam- 
ination. We  may  remember  that  the  answers  of  the  children, 
if  they  could  be  taken  down  at  the  moment,  ought  t<nlb¥&J*V 


114  THE    TEACHING   OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 

a  complete,  orderly,  and  clear  summary  of  the  entire  contents 
of  the  lesson.     The  Art  of  Questioning.    Fitch,  p.  47. 

The  questions  used  in  recitations  should  be  so  arranged  as  to 
unfold  the  subject  in  a  logical  order — a  very  important  mat- 
ter. The  order  in  which  a  subject  is  unfolded  may  make 
the  pupil's  knowledge  clearer  and  more  permanent,  or  it 
may  confuse  and  muddle  it.  The  teacher's  tests  should  be 
logically  arranged  and  systematic.  The  Elements  of  Pedagogy. 
White,  p.  179. 

Vague  and  indefinite  questions  I  have  always  observed  pro- 
duce three  different  results  according  to  those  to  whom  they 
are  addressed:  the  really  thoughtful  and  sensible  boy  is  sim- 
ply bewildered  by  them,  the  bold  and  confident  boy  who  does 
not  think  answers  at  random ;  a  third  class  not  very  keen,  but 
sly  and  knowing  nevertheless,  acquire  a  knack  of  absorbing 
the  structure  of  the  teacher's  sentences  so  as  to  find  out 
which  answer  he  expects.  The  Art  of  Questioning.  Fitch,  pp. 
40-41. 

When  a  lawyer,  in  examining  or  in  cross-examining  a  wit- 
ness on  the  stand,  shall  read  off  all  his  questions  from  a  paper 
held  in  his  hand;  when  any  two  men  who  are  discussing 
politics  shall  stand  up  before  each  other  and  read  off  their 
questions  and  answers  to  each  other;  when  two  persons  in 
ordinary  conversation  shall  follow  closely  their  written  notes 
in  all  that  they  saw  on  both  sides — then,  and  not  before  will 
it  be  time  for  a  Sunday-school  teacher  to  consider  the  pro- 
priety of  his  relying  on  a  printed  set  of  questions,  in  his  en- 
deavor to  aid  a  scholar  to  know  what  he  would  cause  him  to 
know,  and  in  his  effort  to  ascertain  how  much  that  scholar  al- 
ready does  know.  Teaching  and  Teachers.  Trumbull,  p.  187. 

As  Mr.  Beecher  has  forcefully  phrased  it:  "Food  proffered 
when  there  is  no  appetite  is  nauseating.  Information  prof- 
fered prematurely  is  worse  than  wasted.  It  is  stupefying,  har- 
dening." Teaching  and  Teachers.  Trumbull,  p.  181. 

The  educational  value  of  a  well-chosen  question  is  that  it 
enlarges  a  child's  intellectual  horizon,  suggests  a  new  possi- 
bility of  knowledge,  a  new  fact  or  explanation  of  fact,  and  so 
stimulates  his  powers  of  thought.  The  parent  and  teacher 
alike  should  aim  at  fixing  in  a  child's  mind  a  habit  of  inquiry 
by  repeatedly  directing  his  attention  to  what  is  happening 
around  him,  and  encouraging  him  to  find  out  how  these  events 
are  brought  about.  Here,  of  course,  great  discernment  needs 
to  be  shown  in  selecting  problems  which  the  child's  previous 
knowledge  will  enable  him  to  grapple  with.  This  exercise  of 
the  young  mind  in  discovering  the  reasons  of  things  involves 
a  training  in  orderly  recollection;  in  stimulating  him  to  go 
back  to  past  experiences  in  search  of  fruitful  analogies,  as 
well  as  to  principles  already  acquired  in  search  of  explana- 
tions. The  Teacher's  Hand-Book  of  Psychology.  Sully,  p.  399. 


IHB  ART   OP   ILLUSTRATING  115 


XVIII,     THE  ART  OF  ILLUSTRATING 

1.  Kinds  of  Illustration.  The  word  illustration  is  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  word  meaning  "to  light  up/'  An 
illustration  is  something  that  sheds  light  on  a  subject  by 
comparison  which  is  made  between  the  subject  that  is  to  be 
illuminated  and  an  object  that  is  already  known  to  the 
student.  For  example,  a  locomotive  is  sometimes  called  an 
iron  horse.  Illustrations  are  of  two  kinds,  designated  as 
verbal  and  visible  or  material.  We  confine  our  attention  in 
this  lesson  principally  to  the  former.  Verbal  illustrations 
may  be  made  in  a  single  word  or  phrase,  in  a  comparison, 
or  a  story. 

(1)  Very  many  of  our  words  and  phrases  are  of  an  illus- 
trative character.     We  speak  of  a  storm  of  anger,  of  a 
down-hill  career,  of  a  burning  question.    The  style  of  many 
of  our  most  forcible  preachers,  like  Spurgeon,  Cuyler  and 
Moody,  has  been  marked  by  this  illustrative  character. 
These  men  seem  to  have  thought  in  pictures,  painted  in 
single  words  or  phrases.    The  Bible  is  full  of  such  illustra- 
tions.    The  Oriental  mind  naturally  expresses  itself  in 
figures  of  speech :  the  heart  is  said  to  tremble,  and  to  pant ; 
despised  persons  are  spoken  of  as  dogs ;  the  fields  are  called 
upon  to  be  joyful. 

(2)  Illustrations  are  frequently  made  by  direct  com- 
parison, as :  "He  shall  be  like  a  tree/'  "God  is  our  refuge/' 
"The  light  of  the  body  is  the  eye." 

(3)  The  story  is  a  familiar  form  of  illustration.     As 
Gregory  says,  "The  illustration  may  be  framed  purposely 
for  the  subject,  as  were  the  parables  of  our  Lord  and  the 


THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

fables  of  ^Esop  and  others,  or  they  may  be  selected  from 
history  or  common  observation." 

2.  The  Value  of  Illustrations.  (1)  Illustrations  seem  to 
satisfy  an  inherent  necessity  of  the  human  mind.  Spencer 
says,  "The  truths  of  number,  of  form,  or  relationships  in 
position,  were  all  originally  drawn  from  objects,  and  to 
present  these  truths  to  the  child  in  the  concrete  is  to  let 
him  learn  them  as  the  race  learnt  them."  Eaces  in  their 
infancy  speak  in  the  language  of  pictures.  The  language 
of  the  Indian  is  pictorial.  The  child  loves  the  story,  revel- 
ing in  the  narrative  and  never  tiring  of  the  repetition 
of  it.  Men  never  grow  so  old  that  they  do  not  enjoy  a 
story,  and  that  address,  other  things  being  equal,  which  is 
pointed  with  a  story  is  apt  to  be  most  pleasing  to  the  mind. 

(2)  Illustrations  aid  perception.    "The  eye,"  it  has  been 
well  said,  "is  the  pioneer  of  all  learning."     Sense  percep- 
tion, as  we  have  seen,  is  the  fundamental  channel  of  all 
knowledge.     The  comparison,  the  picture,  the  object,  the 
story,  conveys  to  the  mind  what  an  abstract  statement  is 
powerless  to  convey.     The  example  helps  one's  compre- 
hension of  the  rule  in  arithmetic  or  grammar.    The  picture 
throws  a  flood  of  light  on  the  definition  of  the  dictionary. 
Herein  is  fulfilled  one  of  the  great  laws  of  teaching,  that 
the  concrete  shall  precede  the  abstract. 

(3)  This  leads  us  to  note  that  illustrations  are  built  on 
the  principle  of  proceeding  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known.    "Every  new  plan,"  says  Dr.  Hervey,  "or  way  of 
looking  at  things,  or  doctrine,  is  received  into  the  mind  on 
one  condition  only — that  it  be  introduced  by  a  comrade  al- 
ready there.    Then  when  the  new  idea  calls  from  without 
its  fellowf  answers  from  within  and  an  entrance  is  effected." 
When  a  friend  in  travelling  abroad  has  witnessed  some 
strange  object  and  attempts  to  give  us  a  description  of  it, 
he  naturally  resorts  to  a  comparison  of  it  with  something 
that  we  have  seen  in  our  own  country  or  neighborhood. 


THE    ART    OF    ILLUSTRATING 

Especially  is  this  true  of  religious  instruction.  The  ideas 
are  so  different  from  those  with  which  we  are  familiar  in 
everyday  life  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  carry 
them  to  the  human  mind  except  by  comparison  with  the 
objects  of  sense  perception.  God  is,  therefore,  portrayed 
as  having  the  parts  of  a  man :  He  is  the  king,  the  father,  the 
lover.  Heaven  is  described  as  a  place ;  it  has  walls,  streets, 
length  and  breadth.  Duty  to  God  is  represented  under  the 
forms  of  the  service  of  a  servant  in  'the  household,  in  the 
vineyard,  in  the  care  of  money.  Jesus  'likens"  various 
phases  of  the  kingdom  of  God  to  the  mustard  seed  and  the 
leaven,  to  the  growth  of  the  seed,  to  a  king  taking  account 
of  his  servants,  to  ten  virgins  going  to  a  wedding.  So 
Jesus,  when  He  wants  to  convey  to  the*  disciples  the-  thought 
of  spiritual  growth  through  connection  with  Him,  resorts 
to  the  simile  of  the  vine  and  the  branches,  or  feeding  upon 
bread  or  drinking  water.  How  naturally  He  illustrates  this 
great  spiritual  truth  to  the  woman  of  Samaria,  and  how  else 
could  it  have  been  conveyed  to  her  so  forcibly  as  through 
the  familiar  object  of  water  which  she  had  come  to  draw  ? 

(4)  Illustrations  attract  attention,  and  through  atten- 
tion enlist  interest,  and  through  these  assist  memory.    We 
have  seen  how  fundamentally  necessary  attention  is  to  all 
learning.    "We  have  seen  also  how  interest  must  precede  sus- 
tained attention,  and  attention  must  precede  memory.    We 
might  add  another"  link  at  the  beginning  of  this  chain,  and 
show  how  necessary  illustration  is  to  interest.    The  child,  as 
already  noted,  craves  the  illustration  and  is  held  by  the 
story  when  abstract  teaching  would  fall  on  listless  ears.  The 
older  student  comes  back  from  a  mental  wandering  at  the 
sound  of  a  story.    How  many  a  sermon  has  been  remem- 
bered because  of  a  striking  illustration  which  has  brought' 
back  in  its  train  by  association  of  ideas  the  whole?  group  of 
thoughts  presented. 

(5)  Illustrations  quicken  the  imagination.    Here  again 


118  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

we  have  to  do  with  a  mental  capacity  that  is  of  utmost 
service  in  all  learning,  and  that  is,  in.  turn,  stimulated  by 
the  illustration.  The  fondness  of  the  child  for  the  story  is, 
perhaps,  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  imagination 
plays  so  large  a  part  in  its  mental  activities,  preceding,  like 
perception,  the  full  development  of  the  reflective  powers. 
It  is  to  this  element  in  the  life  of  the  child  that  the  story 
appeals.  It  is  not  unnatural  that  illustrations  should  thus 
appeal  to  the  imagination.  The  imagination  is  the  picture- 
forming  power  of  the  mind.  The  mind  revels  in  picture 
material  and  an  illustration  is  in  the  last  analysis  only  a 
picture. 

(6)  Illustrations  help  reasoning.    Adams,  in  his  Primer 
on  Teaching,  calls  our  attention  to  the  fact  that  illustra- 
tions are  a  form  of  deductive  reasoning,  being  by  their  very 
nature  examples  of  a  general  principle  or  law.    The  prop- 
osition which  the  mind  fails  to  reach  by  abstract  reasoning 
may  be  grasped  by  the  aid  of  a  concrete  example  in  the  form 
of  an  illustration. 

(7)  Illustrations  arouse  the  conscience.     If  allowed  to 
tell  their  own  tale  and  point  their  own  moral,  illustrations 
are  powerful  for  the  conveying  of  moral  and  religious  truth. 
No  case  is  more  to  the  point  than  the  story  of  the  lamb 
with  which  Nathan  awakened  the  sleeping  convictions  of 
David  and  carried  to  his  mind  a  sense  of  guilt.    Dr.  Her- 
vey  quotes  Miss  Wiltsie's  experience  in  reaching*  the  con- 
science of  a  boy  through  a  story.    "There  was  in  my  kinder- 
garten," she  writes,  "  a  little  boy  whose  deceit  and  cruelty 
were  quite  abnormal;  he  would  smile  in  my  face  with 
seraphic  sweetness  while  his  heavy  shoe  would  be  crushing 
his  neighbor's  toes.     *     *     *     He  seemed  incorrigible.  At 
last  I  wrote  a  story  entitled  'The  Fairy  True  Child/  into 
which  I  put  my  strongest  effort  to  reach  this  untruthful 
child.    I  told  it  to  the  class,  and  before  it  was  concluded 
this  boy's  head  was  low  upon  his  breast,  his  cheeks  aflame 


THE    ART    OP    ILLUSTRATING  H9 

with  conscious  guilt.  No  direct  reference  was  made  to  him ; 
no  other  child  thought  of  him  in  connection  with  the  story. 
The  next  day  he  asked  to  have  it  repeated,  and  his  conduct 
was  noticeably  better;  the  story  became  his  normal  tonic, 
and  one  glad  day  he  threw  his  arms  about  me,  saying  he 
wanted  to  keep  his  Fairy  True  Child  always." 
3.  Characteristics  of  effective  illustrations : 

(1)  Illustrations  should  illustrate.    An  illustration  may 
be  compared  with  a  pane  of  glass  whose  function  it  is  to  per- 
mit a  person  to  see  clearly  the  objects  outside  the  window. 
A  pane  of  glass  that  is  defective  attracts  attention  to  itself 
and  prevents  the  person  from  seeing  clearly  outside  objects. 
In  the  same  way  illustrations  should  be  so  transparent  that 
the  mind  loses  sight  for  the  time  of  the  illustration  in  its 
contemplation  of  the-  truth  which  it  is  supposed  to  illumine. 
For  the  same  reason  illustrations  should  never  be  used  for 
their  own  sake.    Stained  glass  windows  are  useful  in  their 
place,  but  not  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  the  inmates 
of  the  building  with  a  view  of  people  moving  in  the  street. 
It  is  a  great  temptation  to  some  speakers  to  repeat  a  good 
story  for  the  effect  of  the  story  without  reference  to  the 
making  of  a  point;  indeed,  a  point  is  sometimes  made  to 
permit  the-  telling  of  the  story.     This  may  be  admissible 
in.  an  after-dinner  speech,  but  not  in  the  classroom.     Dr. 
William  *M.  T&ylor,  as  quoted  by  Dr.  Hervey,  told  once  of 
a  conversation  with  a  carpenter,  in  which  he  advised  him 
to-  use.  certain  decorations.     "That/'  said  the  carpenter.  .'. 
f 'would  violate  the*  first  rule  of  architecture.  We  must  never  * 
construct  ornament,  but  only  ornament  construction."    So 
it  is  in  story-telling. 

(2)  Illustrations  should  be  simple.    The  purpose  of  the 
illustration  is  to  make  clear  what  it  would  otherwise  be 
difficult  to  understand.     The  folly  of  supplying  for  the 
illumination  of  a  subject  a  long  or  complicated  illustration, 
which  itself  needs  to  be  illuminated,  must  therefore  be  ap- 


120  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

parent.  Illustrations  should  not  be  too  long  or  abound  with 
too  many  details  which  confuse  the  mind  and  prevent  it 
from  fixing  on  the  point  to  be  illustrated. 

(3)  It  is  a  mistake  to  use  many  illustrations.    Illustra- 
tions should  be  used  to  illuminate  only  those  points  of  the 
lesson  which  might  otherwise  be  obscure.    Two  illustrations 
presented  in  quick  succession,  illuminating  the  same  point, 
are  apt  to  neutralize  each  other. 

(4)  Accurate  knowledge  is  necessary  to  the  preparation 
of  effective  illustrations.    The  teacher  should  have  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  subject  he  is  trying  to  illustrate.    At  no 
point  is  haziness  or  indefiniteness  in  the  teacher  so  apparent 
as  in  his  attempt  to  illustrate  a  subject  which  he  himself 
does  not  understand.    As  Gregory  says,  "The  power  of  illus- 
tration comes  only  out  of  a  clear  and  familiar  knowledge. 
The  unknowing  teacher  is  the  blind  trying  to  lead  the  blind 
with  only  an  empty  lamp  to  light  the  way."    Almost  equally 
as  important  is  it  for  the  teacher  to  have  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  the  realm  from  which  he  draws  his  illustration. 
Otherwise  he  may  make  himself  ridiculous  to  some  of  his 
auditors  who  have  a  clearer  knowledge  of  the  field  of  his 
illustration  and  detect  absurdities  in  it.  as  did  the  audi- 
tors of  the  speaker  known  to  the  writer,  who,  in  describing 
the  moral  pitfalls  attending  the  steps  of  a  young  man,  told 
of  a  man  wandering  among  the  oil  wells  of  Pemwvlvania 
and  falling  into  one  of  them  and  being  lost !    Mr.  Beecher 
says,  "If  you  should  undertake  to  'work  ship'  in  an  audience 
where  there  is  a  good  old  sea  captain,  and  you  should  make 
a  mistake  and  speak  as  though  you  thought  the  taffrail 
was  the  rudder,*he  would  feel  contempt  for  you." 

(5)  Illustrations  should  be  within  the  range  of  the 
knowledge  and  experience  of  the  student.    Tlie  very  prin- 
ciple of  the  illustration  is  to  proceed  from  the  known  to 
the  unknown,  to  find  something  in  the  experience  of  th* 
student  to  which  the  new  knowledge  may  be  attached.    "To 


THE   ART    OF   ILLUSTRATING  121 

compare  the  unknown  with  the  unknown,"  as  Gregory  says, 
"is  to  set  the  blind  leading  the  blind.  Of  what  use  is  it 
to  talk  of  Titanic  strength  to  one  who  never  heard  of 
Titans,  or  of  oceanic  grandeur  or  mountain  sublimities  to 
those  who  never  saw  either  ocean  or  mountain  ?" 

(6)  Illustrations  should  not  be  pressed  too  far.    Every 
illustration  must  of  necessity  contain  subsidiary  features 
which  do  not  go  to  illustrate  the  subject  in  hand.     Some 
well-meaning  students  of  the  Bible  have  pressed  the  sym- 
bolism of  the  Tabernacle,  the  parables  of  Jesus  and  other 
illustrations  of  sacred  writ  to  an  absurd  and  harmful  de- 
gree.   "No  parable  goes  on  all  fours."    Children  especially 
are  apt  to  grasp  the  subsidiary  elements  of  an  illustration 
and  to  press  its  ridiculous  or  irrelevant  features  to  the 
front.    As  a  rule  an  illustration  should  not  be  expected  to 
illuminate  more  than  one  point,  and  that  the  point  under 
emphasis  at  the  time. 

(7)  Illustrations  must  not  be  regarded  as  proofs.  While 
they  are  an  aid  to  reasoning,  as  has  already  been  indicated, 
they  are  not  intended  to  demonstrate  a  proposition  unless 
they  are  facts  that  point  with  many  other  facts  to  a  general 
law.     So  strenuously  did  Locke  feel  this  that  he  argued 
against  illustrations  as  the  enemies  of  truth  because  they 
lead  the  mind  astray  by  their  analogies.    Some  people  will 
close  an  argument  with  a  story  as  though  in  triumphant 
demonstration  of  the  truth  of  their  position,  whereas  it  is 
simply  an  effort  to  make  more  clear  their  own  view  of  the 
case. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

*  Teaching  and  Teachers.  Trumbull,  pp.  153-166. 
^Picture  Work  for  Teachers  and  Mothers.  Walter  L.  Hervey, 
Ph.D.     (30  cents.) 

*How  to  Teach  the  Bible.    Gregory,  pp.  50-57. 
*Primer  on  Teaching.    Adams,  pp.  116-129. 
The  Art  of  Securing  Attention.   Fitch,  pp.  60-67. 
The  Teacher  and  the  Child.    Mark,  pp.  62-67. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching.    Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Vol.  I., 
Chapter  on  Rhetorical  Illustrations,  pp.  1&4-180.     ($1.50.) 
The  Art  of  Illustration.    C.  H.  Spurgeon.     ($1.) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

Happy  the  teacher  who  has  inherited  by  nature  or  attained 
by  art  a  facility  in  forming  clear  and  simple  illustrations.  He 
may  lack  many  other  useful  qualifications,  but  with  this  one 
he  can  scarcely  fail  to  be  interesting  and  instructive.  It  needs 
but  little  examination  to  show  us  that  all  great  orators  and 
popular  writers  excel  in  this  power  of  illustration.  Take 
any  of  the«great  speeches  of  Burke  or  Webster,  even  the  most 
argumentative,  and  they  will  be  found  to  sparkle  all  through 
with  illustrations,  sometimes  given  in  full-wrought  figures, 
but  more  frequently  in  fit  words  or  phrases  which  suggest 
picturesque  analogies,  and  resemblances  as  full  of  beauty  as 
of  light.  How  to  Teach  the  Bible.  Gregory,  pp.  50-51. 

That  was  a  profound  and  true  saying  uttered  by  President 
G.  Stanley  Hall  not  long  ago,  that  "of  all  the  things  that  a 
teacher  should  know  how  to  do  the  most  Important,  without 
any  exception,  is  to  be  able  to  tell  a  story."  Picture  Work, 
Hervey,  p.  31. 

Almost  all  other  forms  of  illustration  depend  upon  what  is 
known  as  analogy.  Before  we  can  have  an  analogy  we  must 
deal  with  four  ideas.  These  must  be  arranged  in  pairs  in  such 
a  way  that  the  relation  between  the  first  pair  of  ideas  is  the 
same  as  that  between  the  second  pair.  "I  am  the  vine,  ye  are 
the  branches."  Here  the  four  ideas  are,  I  (i.  e.,  Jesus),  the 
vine,  ye  (i.  e.t  Jesus'  followers),  the  branches.  To  bring  out 
the  analogy  the  four  ideas  must  be  placed  in  two  groups, 
Jesus  and  Jesus'  followers  in  one  group,  and  the  vine  and  its 
branches  in  the  other.  Thus  it  is  stated  in  this  way:  Jesus 
has  the  same  relation  to  His  followers  as  the  vine  has  to  its 
branches.  An  analogy  can  be  stated  in  the  same  way  as  you 
used  to  state  a  proportion  problem  when  you  were  at  school. 

Jesus  :  His  followers  : :  the  vine  :  its  branches. 
This  is  read,  as  you  no  doubt  remember:  "As  Jesus  is  to  His 
followers,  so  is  the  vine  to  it*  branches."  The  statement  is 
equally  true  if  the  second  pair  is  put  first:  as  the  vine  is  to 
the  branches,  so  is  Jesus  to  His  followers.  In  illustration  it  is 
usually  better  to  place  the  better  known  pair  first.  The  dis- 
ciples were  supposed  to  know  the  relation  between  the  vine 
and  its  branches,  and  were  called  upon  to  observe  that  the 
same  relation  held  between  Jesus  and  His  followers.  Primer 
on  Teaching.  Adams,  pp.  119-120. 

But  the  true  use  of  illustration  by  a  teacher  is  in  his  avail- 
Ing  himself  of  that  which  the  learner  already  knows,  as  a  help 
to  the  understanding  of  that  which  the  learner  does  not  yet 
know.  Every  scholar  already  knows  something.  Every  teach- 
er ought  to  know  more  than  his  scholar.  In  the  teacher's 
effort  to  cause  his  scholar  to  gain  fresh  knowledge,  he  can 
wisely  make  use  of  an  illustration — of  a  light-shedding  com* 


THE   ART    OF    ILLUSTRATING  123 

parison — out  of  the  scholar's  stock  of  knowledge,  to  make  clear 
a  truth  beyond  the  scholar's  present  possessions,  but  within 
the  teacher's  realm  of  knowledge.  And  without  this  work  of 
light-shedding,  everything  else  that  any  teacher  does  or  is, 
goes  for  naught  in  the  process  of  teaching.  Teaching  and 
Teachers.  Trumbull,  p.  154. 

Finally,  the  points  of  practical  story-telling  may  be  thus 
outlined:  1.  See  it.  If  you  are  to  make  me  see  it  you  must 
see  it  yourself.  2.  Feel  it  If  it  is  to  touch  your  class  it  must 
first  have  touched  you.  3.  Shorten  it  It  is  probably  too  long. 
Brevity  is  the  soul  of  story-telling.  4.  Expand  it.  It  is  prob- 
ably meager  in  necessary  background,  in  details.  5.  Master 
it  Practice.  Repetition  is  the  mother  of  stories  well  told; 
readiness,  the  secret  of  classes  well  held.  6.  Repeat  it.  Don't 
be  afraid  of  retelling  a  good  story.  The  younger  the  chil- 
dren are,  the  better  they  like  old  friends.  But  everyone  likes  a 
"twice-told  tale/1  Picture  Work.  Hervey,  pp.  42-43. 


124;  THE    TEACHING    OF    BIBLE    CLASSES 


XIX.    THE   ART   OF  ILLUSTRATING  (Concluded.) 

1.  Visible  or  material  illustrations.  We  turn  our  at- 
tention in  this  lesson  to  illustrations  which  are  known  as 
visible  or  material.  Among  them  may  be  cited  illustrations 
by  means  of  objects,  blackboards,  maps  and  pictures. 

(1)  Object  illustrations.  We  must  distinguish,  first  of 
all,  between  object  illustration  and  object-lessons.  In  ob- 
ject-lessons the  object  is  studied  largely  for  its  own  sake, 
in  order  to  discover  its  properties  and  to  develop  the  powers 
of  observation  and  sense  perception  in  the  student.  Thus 
a  student  would  study  a  plant  to  discover  its  classification 
and  the  laws  of  its  growth,  or  a  precious  stone  to  detect 
its  points  of  difference  from  other  precious  stones.  But 
in  object  illustration  the  plant  would  be  used  to  illum- 
inate some  statement  concerning  growth,  it  may  be  in  the 
spiritual  life  or  in  the  development  of  the  mind,  while  the 
precious  stone  would  be  brought  to  view  to  illustrate  the 
value  of  small  articles  or  the  beauty  of  nature's  productions. 
Among  the  objects  which  Dr.  Shauffler,  in  his  book  on 
<rWays  of  Working,"  suggests  may  be  used  to  illustrate  re- 
ligious subjects  are :  the  flower  seed,  to  illustrate  the  resur- 
rection; the  magnet,  to  illustrate  the  unknown  power  of 
the  Holy  Spirit ;  the  watch,  to  illustrate  the  complex  char- 
acter of  the  human  frame  as  it  sets  forth  the  wisdom  of 
God;  a  blank  book,  to  illustrate  how  God  keeps  a  record 
of  our  lives;  an  artificial  flower,  to  represent  hypocrisy; 
a  single  strand  of  thread,  easily  broken,  but  being  mani- 
folded, hard  to  break,  to  represent  the  binding  force  of  evil 
habits;  an  ordinary  trap,  to  suggest  the  deceptiveness  of 


THE   ART    OF    ILLUSTRATING  135 

temptation;  the  processes  of  photography,  to  illustrate  the 
sensitiveness  of  the  heart  to  good  and  evil  influences. 

.«.s  in  the  case  of  verbal  illustrations,  so  the  use  of  object 
illustrations  should  be  safeguarded  in  order  to  the  greatest 
effectiveness,  (a)  The  objects  so«  used  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  absorb  the  interest  in*  themselves.  Like  verbal 
illustrations,  they  should  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
tration and  not  for  their  own  intrinsic  attractiveness. 
(b)  For  the  same  reason,  the  object  should  be  kept  out  of 
the  sight  of  the  class  until  it  is  to  be  used,  and  removed 
from  the  sight  as  soon  as  it  has  served  its  purpose,  (c)  Ap- 
propriate objects  should  be  used.  Some  of  the  appropriate 
objects  used  by  Jesus  were  the  little  child,  the  washing  of 
the  disciples'  feet,  the  bread  and  wine,  (d)  Object  illus- 
trations, like  verbal  illustrations,  should  be  used  sparingly. 
An  occasional  introduction  of  this  feature  will  be  more 
effective  than  its  regular  use. 

(2)  Blackboard  illustrations.  Too  much  cannot  be  said 
in  advocacy  of  the  use  of  the  blackboard  in  teaching.  No 
successful  teacher  in  our  day  schools  would  attempt  to  pro- 
ceed without  such,  assistance,  and  its  use  is  not  less  essen- 
tial in  religious  instruction.  When  it  is  not  feasible,  because 
of  an  aggregation  of  classes  in  a  schoolroom,  to  make  use 
of  a  stationary  board,  class  slates  or  small  portable  boards 
should  be  substituted.  For  classes  of  younger  students  the 
illustrations  will  take  the  form  of  maps,  diagrams  to  indi- 
cate forms  and  relative  location  of  the  objects  described, 
designs  to  impress  the  teaching  of  the  lesson.  For  older 
students  the  noting  of  important  words  in  the  lesson,  the 
writing  of  summaries  or  conclusions  to  be  kept  in  note- 
books, as  well  as  occasional  drawings  to  illustrate  some 
phase  of  the  truth  that  is  under  consideration,  are  always 
helpful.  The  most  important  general  comment  that  can 
be  made  on  methods  of  using  the  blackboard  is  that  for  the 
greatest  interest  the  work  should  grow  in  the  class  under 


126     THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

the  eye  of  the  student.  While  the  teacher  without  ability 
in  this  direction  may  feel  impelled  to  bring  a  ready-made 
sketch  into  the  class,  he  should  prepare  himself,  if  possible, 
to  acquit  himself  with  credit  in  this  particular,  even  under 
the  critical  eye  of  students  who  may  have  had  greater  ad- 
vantages in  the  art  of  drawing  than  himself.  Fortunately, 
drawing  is  now  a  recognized  feature  of  the  curriculum  of 
our  day  schools,  so  that  the  new  generation  of  Bible  teachers 
will  be  able  to  do  justice  to  this  method  of  instruction.  For 
those  who  have  not  enjoyed  such  advantages  valuable  sug- 
gestions are  offered  in  such  books  as  "Illustrative  Black- 
board Sketching,"  by  W.  Bertha  Hintz;  "The  Blackboard  in 
Sunday-school/'  by  H.  T.  Bailey,  and  "Pictured  Truth," 
by  Robert  F.  Y.  Pierce. 

(3)  Maps.    The  drawing  of  maps  is  an  important  phase 
of  blackboard  illustrations.    This  should  be  associated  with 
the  use  of  wall  maps,  or  those  found  in  many  Bibles,  or 
that  can  be  purchased  separately.    Relief  maps  of  Palestine, 
the  Sinai  Peninsula,  the  Bible  lands,  are  published  by  the 
David  C.  Cook  Publishing  Company,  Chicago,  111.,  for  five 
cents  each.    "Map  Modelling,"  by  Maltby,  will  give  assist- 
ance in  the  making  of  maps,  as  will  "The  Bible  Atlas,"  by 
J.  L.  Hurlbut  (Rand,  McNally  &  Co.).    Instructions  for 
the  making  of  a  sand  map  will  be  found  in  Hervey's  "Pic- 
ture Work." 

(4)  Pictures.     Copies  of  classical  pictures  and  famous 
paintings  may  be  procured  for  class  use,  at  one  cent  each, 
of  the  Perry  Picture  Company,  Maiden,  Mass.,  and  the 
W.  A.  Wilde  Publishing  Company,  Boston,  Mass.    Photo- 
graphs of  scenes  in  the  Holy  Land,  at  ten  cents  each,  may 
be  secured  of  the  Globe  Bible  Publishing  Company,  Phila- 
delphia.   Underwood  &  Underwood,  of  New  York,  furnish 
stereopticon  views  of  the  Holy  Land  with  greatly  improved 
stereoscopes  for  class  use. 

2.  How  to  secure  illustrations.     (1)  Cultivate  the  im- 


THE    ART    OF    ILLUSTRATING  127 

agination.  As  illustrations  quicken  the  imagination,  so 
they  are  furnished  by  the  imagination.  He  who  is  entirely 
devoid  of  imagination  will  have  much  difficulty  in  produc- 
ing original  illustrations. 

(2)  Develop  the  habit  of  observation.    A  constant  pur- 
pose to  find  illustrations  in  the  ordinary  experiences  of 
everyday  life  will  soon  bring  to  the  teacher  an  inexhaust- 
ible storehouse  of  such  helpful  material. 

(3)  The  ability  to  formulate  illustrations  grows  by  exer- 
cise.   Mr.  Beecher  tells  us  that  the  use  of  illustrations  came 
to  be  as  natural  to  him  as  breathing,  but  that  he  came  to 
use  fifty,  to  one  in  the  early  years  of  his  ministry,  when 
they  were  comparatively  few  and  far  apart;  but  he  devel- 
oped the  tendency  that  was  latent  in  him  and  educated  him- 
self in  that  respect,  so  that  whatever  skill  he  had  in  this 
direction  was  largely  the  result  of  education.    Gregory  says, 
"A  teacher  who  persists  in  the  effort  will  soon  find  that 
illustrations  occur  to  him  more  and  more  readily,  and  that 
unexpected  and  heretofore  unnoticed  analogies  and  resem- 
blances will  strike  him  from  all  directions." 

(4)  Each  lesson  should  be  studied  with  reference  to  its 
picture-making    features.      The    imagination    should    be 
brought  to  play  upon  the  material  of  each  lesson  in  such  a 
way  as  to  elicit  from  it  that  which  will  appeal  to  the  love 
of  the  pictorial  in  the  student.    Dramatic  situations,  vivid 
coloring,  heroic  actions,  should  not  be  overlooked. 

(5)  Among  the  sources  of  illustrations  may  be  men- 
tioned the  following:   (a)  The  Bible.     No  book  is  more 
prolific  in  illustrative  material  than  the  Scriptures  them- 
selves.    David  in  his  Psalms,  Solomon  in  his  Proverbs, 
Isaiah  and  Ezekiel,  Jesus  and  Paul,  wrote  and  spoke  in 
language  that  was  saturated  with  the  picture  element. 
(6)  Nature.    This  was  a  fruitful  source  of  the  illustrations 
used  by  Jesus.    The  fields,  the  lilies,  the  seed,  the  harvest, 
were  all  used  by  Him  to  illustrate  spiritual  truths.    A  study 


128  <         THE    TEACHING    OP    BIBLE    CLASSES 

of  the  natural  sciences,  which  are  but  an  orderly  collation  of 
the  facts  of  nature,  will  also  repay  in  appropriate  illustra- 
tions for  biblical  subjects,  (c)  History  and  biography  are 
full  of  the  best  illustrative  material — best  because  it  is 
taken  from  life  and  from  the  realm  of  actual  facts,  (d) 
Fiction — an  imaginative  form  of  history  and  biography — 
also  abounds  in  illustrations  for  him  who  has  his  eyes  open 
for  them,  (e)  Books  of  illustrations.  These  are  suggestive 
to  him  who  has  not  yet  acquired  skill  in  securing  illustra- 
tions for  himself.  The  best  book  of  illustrations,  however, 
is  the  one  that  is  prepared  by  the  student  for  himself,  the 
scrap  or  note  book,  in  which  he  enters  from  the  record  of 
daily  life  in  the  newspapers,  or  from  any  of  the  sources 
noted  above,  incidents  and  facts  which  will  illuminate  his 
teaching  of  religious  truth. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

•Picture  Work  for  Teachers  and  Mothers.    Hervey. 

•Ways  of  Working.  A.  F.  Schauffler,  D.D.  ($1.)  Object  and 
Blackboard  Teaching,  pp.  95-118. 

•The  Blackboard  in  Sunday-School.    Henry  Turner  Bailey. 

•Map  Modelling.   Dr.  A.  E.  Maltby.     ($1.) 

Pictured  Truth.    Robert  F.  Y.  Pierce.     ($1.25.) 

Illustrative  Blackboard  Sketching.  W.  Bertha  Hintz.  (30 
cents.) 

Securing  and  Retaining  Attention.    Hughes,  pp.  62-66. 

The  Life  of  Jesus.  W.  H.  Davis  and  Prof.  J.  A.  MacVannel ; 
Men  of  the  Bible.  W.  H.  Davis  and  Prof.  George  Allen  Hub- 
bell  ;  Travels  of  Paul.  Melvin  Jackson  and  Prof.  W.  G.  Ballan- 
tine.  (25  cents  each.) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

Words  are  not  the  only  medium  through  which  mind  speaks 
to  mind.  The  thinker  has  a  hundred  ways  to  express  his 
thoughts.  The  eye  talks  with  a  various  eloquence;  and  the 
skilled  orator  finds  in  the  lip  and  brow,  in  head  and  hand, 
in  the  shrugging  shoulder  and  the  stamping  foot,  organs  for 
most  intelligible  speech.  The  gestures  of  John  B.  Gough 
often  tell  more  than  the  clearest  sentences  of  other  speakers. 
A  German  described  him  as  "the  man  what  talks  mit  his  coat- 
tails,"  referring  to  some  illustration  in  which  the  facile  orator 
has  made  a  flirt  of  his  coat-tails  tell  the  idea  he  wished  to 
express.  Deafmutes  can  talk  together  by  the  hour  by  signs, 
without  spelling  out  a  single  word.  Among  savage  peoples 


THE    ART    OF    ILLUSTRATING  129 

whose  language  is  too  meager  to  meet  the  native  needs  of  their 
minds,  symbolic  actions  supply  the  lack  of  words.  There  is 
also  speech  in  pictures.  From  the  rudest  chalk  sketch  on  the 
blackboard  to  the  highest  work  of  the  painter's  art,  no  teach- 
ing is  more  swift  and  impressive  than  that  of  pictorial  repre- 
sentation. The  eye  gathers  here  at  a  glance  more  than  the 
ear  could  learn  from  an  hour  of  verbal  description.  Seven 
Laws  of  Teaching.  Gregory,  p.  57. 

In  a  Sunday  review  once  a  lesson  happened  to  be  on  Samuel, 
and  I  was  to  speak  to  the  scholars.  I  asked  if  there  were  any 
boys  there  by  the  name  of  Samuel  and  four  boys  arose.  Choos- 
ing the  best  looking  of  them,  I  called  him  to  the  platform, 
blindfolded  him,  then  I  put  the  end  of  a  thread  into  his  hands, 
myself  holding  the  other  end,  and  said,  "Samuel,  when  you 
feel  this  draw,  follow."  In  this  way  I  led  him  all  about  the 
Sunday-school  room,  the  only  connection  between  him  and 
myself  being  that  thread.  The  whole  school  arose  to  watch. 
Presently  I  said,  "Samuel,  hold  back/"  He  stood  still,  I  kept 
on,  the  thread  broke.  Going  back  to  the  platform,  I  said,  "See 
how  Samuel  was  led  safely  so  long  as  he  followed  the  pull  of 
the  thread.  See  how  he  lost  his  connection  with  me  when 
he  held  back;  so  the  Samuel  of  our  lesson  followed  when  God 
called,  and  said,  'Speak,  Lord,  for  thy  servant  heareth.'  If 
he  had  held  back  and  refused,  God's  guidance  would  have 
been  offered  in  vain."  Ways  of  Working.  Shauffler,  pp.  102- 
103. 

The  attractiveness  of  the  object  chains  the  child's  atten- 
tion to  the  thing  rather  than  the  thought,  and  we  spend  our 
whole  lives  in  trying  to  spring  away  from  things  of  sense 
to  spiritual  things.  Such  display  materially  defeats  the  pur- 
pose intended  to  be  accomplished.  The  Point  of  Contact  in 
Teaching.  DuBois,  p.  98. 

Not  merely  for  children,  but  for  grown  folk  too  is  this 
kind  of  picture  work  a  means  of  teaching.  In  a  densely 
populated  quarter  of  New  York  City  there  is  to-day  a  minister 
who  is  not  content  with  mere  word-pictures.  He  brings  into 
the  pulpit  the  objects  themselves — it  may  be  a  candle,  a  plumb 
line,  a  live  frog,  an  air  pump.  Ezekiel  went  still  further,  and 
not  only  used  objects  but  actions  to  enforce  and  illustrate  his 
terrible  sermon:  "To  the  amazement  of  the  people,  setting 
them  all  wondering  what  he  could  mean,  he  appears  one  day 
before  them  with  a  fire,  a  pair  of  scales,  a  knife,  and  a  barber's 
razor.  These  were  the  heads,  and  doom  was  the  burden  of  his 
sermon.  Sweeping  off,  what  an  Eastener  considers  it  a  shame 
to  lose,  his  beard  and  the  hair  also  from  his  head,  this  bald 
and  beardless  man  divides  them  into  three  parts,  weighing 
them  in  the  balance.  One-third  he  burns  in  the  fire;  one-third 
he  smites  with  the  knife;  and  the  remaining  third  he  tosses 
in  the  air,  scattering  it  on  the  winds  of  heaven."  Thus  the 
prophet  under  divine  direction  foretells  the  disgrace,  division, 
destruction,  dispersion  of  his  people.  Picture.  Work.  Hervey, 
pp.  12-13. 


130     THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 


XX.    THE  LESSON  STUDY 

One  method  of  conducting  this  lesson  is  the  actual  study 
of  a  scriptural  passage  in  the  class  session  as  though  the 
members  of  the  class  were  in  their  own  home,  devoting  the 
entire  time  of  the  session  to  the  study.  The  following  is 
a  study  of  Acts  17:1-15  actually  worked  out  in  such  a 
class  session.  The  books  used  were  Reference  Bible,  Au- 
thorized and  Revised  Versions,  Modern  Speech  New  Testa- 
ment, Concordance,  Bible  Text  Book,  Atlas,  Bible  Diction- 
ary, Commentaries  and  Note  Books.  The  crosses,  made  as 
the  lesson  was  worked  out,  indicate  significant  facts  to  be 
gathered  up  and  emphasized  in  preparing  the  material  for 
the  Teaching  Plan. 

LESSON  STUDY  OF  ACTS  17:  1-15 

How  the  Thessalonians  and  the  Bereans  received  the  Gospel. 

1.  Text. 

(1)  Read  it  over.    Read  it  again  aloud. 

X  Dominant  impression  from  these  readings — the 
contrast  between  the  Thessalonians  and  the  Bereans 
in  the  reception  of  the  Gospel. 

(Because  the  lesson  seems  to  center  here,  and  for 
lack  of  time  to  do  more,  special  attention  will  be  de- 
voted to  vs.  10-13.) 

(2)  Read  Revised  Version  in  comparison  with  Author- 
ized Version. 

V.  11.     "Examine"  for  "search." 

V.  12.  "The  Greek  women  of  honorable  estate" 
for  "honorable  women,"  indicating  social  status  of 
the  women. 


THE   LESSON   STUDY  131 

V.  13.    "Proclaimed"  for  "preached." 

"Stirring  up  and  troubling"  for  "stirred 
up." 

(3)  Modern  Speech  New  Testament  (or  The  Twen- 
tieth Century  New  Testament) . 

V.  11.     "Nobler  disposition"  for  "more  noble." 
V.  12.     "Gentle  women"  for  "honorable  women." 
XV.  13.     "Incited  the  mob  to  riot"  for  "stirred  up 
the  people."     (A  point  of  contact  here, 
especially  for  class  of  boys.) 

(4)  The  Student's  Own  Version. — The  story  written 
in  his  own  words. 

(5)  Eeferences. 
(a)  Marginal. 

V.  10.     Acts  9:25.     "Let  down  by  the  wall  in  a 
basket"     Not  the  first  time  that  Paul 
had  fled  from  danger.    Was  this  cour- 
ageous ? 
.V.  11.     Isaiah  34:16.     "Seek  ye  out  of  the  book 

of  the  Lord." 

Luke  16:29.  "They  have  Moses  and  the 
prophets."  The  Scriptures  the  Bereans 
had  to  search. 

John  5:39.     "Ye  search  the  Scriptures." 
(&)   Concordance. 
Yields  only  John  5:39,  and  Acts  17:11,  as 

above. 

'(6)  Bible  Text  Book  (under  Scriptures). 
X     V.  11.     John  7 :52.    "Search  and  look."    An  in- 
quiry to  learn  whether  the  truth  had 
been  spoken. 
2.  Explanations. 

(1)   Geography,  History,  Biography  and  Cus- 
toms. 
Map.     Paul's  second  missionary  journey. 


132  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

Thessalonica  and  Berea  in  Macedonia 
northwest  of  the  ^Egean  Sea. 
Bible  Dictionary.    Berea  fifty  miles  south- 
west from  Thessalonica,  23  miles  from 
the  sea;  not  a  city  of  great  fame;  not 
mentioned  in  the  Epistles  of  Paul. 
l(2)  Comments. 

(a)   Original. 

X     V.  11.  Why  were  the  Bereans  more 

noble? 

They  displayed  openness  of  mind. 

Searched  the  Scriptures  daily. 

Studied  whether  these  things  were  so. 

Here  we  are  getting  at  the  very  heart 
of  the  lesson. 

V.  13.  "Stirred  up  and  troubled." 
Would  not  receive  the  Gospel  themselves 
and  would  not  allow  others  to  receive  it. 
Traveled  fifty  miles  to  make  a  discord. 
(&)  Commentary. 

(International  Revised  Commentary, 
by  J.  S.  Howson;  or  Cambridge  Bible, 
by  J.  R.  Lumby ;  or  Handbook  for  Bible 
Classes,  by  T.  M.  Lindsay.  Also  "Paul 
the  Missionary"  by  W.  M.  Taylor,  and 
other  biographies  of  Paul.) 
X  V.  11.  (Howson.)  "Nobility  of 
soul  shown  in  the  patient  spirit  of  in- 
quiry." Suggesting  duty  of  honest  in- 
quiry. 

V.  11.  (Taylor.)  "Success  of  the 
Christian  teacher  depends  upon  the 
spirit  of  the  hearers  as  really  as  upon 
manner  in  which  he  presents  the  Gos- 
pel/' 


THE   LESSON    STUDY  133 

3.  Observation. 

We  now  have  the  material  before  us.  What  shall  we  do 
with  it?  Now  is  the  time  to  sit  back  and  think  over  it. 
Now  is  the  time  for  it  to  lie  in  solution,  perhaps  for  several 
days.  Now  is  the  time  for  prayer,  with  which  we  are  sup- 
posed to  have  begun,  and  in  the  spirit  of  which  we  are  sup- 
posed to  have  continued  the  study.  What  is  the  general  im- 
pression ?  Is  not  the  impression  made  by  the  first  reading, 
and  re-reading  of  the  lesson,  confirmed,  namely,  the  contrast 
between  the  two  ways  of  receiving  the  Gospel  represented  by 
the  Thessalonians  and  the  Bereans  ? 

X     How  the  Bereans  received  it : 

(1)  Openness  of  mind,  i.  e.,  a  sympathetic  attitude. 

(2)  Searched  the  Scriptures  daily,  i.  e.,  an  earnest  and 
daily  study.    Note  that  they  were  not  yet  Christians. 

(3)  Whether  these  things  were  so,  i.  e.,  a  spirit  of 
honest  inquiry.    Did  not  take  everything  for  granted. 

Eesult:    They  believed.     Men  say,  "I  can't  believe." 
One  cannot  believe  until  he  has  studied  something  to 
believe. 
X     How  the  Thessalonians  received  it : 

They  would  not  receive  the  Gospel  and  would  not  allow 
others  to  receive  it. 

4.  Teachings. 

The  contrast.     Two  ways  of  receiving  the  Gospel. 
Which  is  my  way?    Am  I  a  Berean  or  a  Thessalonian ? 

Comments  on  this  method  of  study.  The  method  will 
be  recognized  as  inductive — the  laying  of  a  broad  founda- 
tion of  historical  statements  and  facts  on  which  the  super- 
structure shall  be  built ;  the  proceeding  from  facts  to  prin- 
ciples. Therefore  we  insist  upon  a  thorough  study  of  the 
text  first,  before  any  helps  are  consulted,  and  the  study  of 
those  helps  first  that  bear  on  the  text  rather  than  upon  the 
interpretation.  The  inexperienced  teacher  will  make  the 


134  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE    CLASSES 

mistake  of  proceeding  too  quickly  to  a  search  for  the  spir- 
itual application  of  the  lesson.  This  search  should  be  with- 
held until  the  text  has  been  fully  studied  and  the  location 
and  history  of  the  places  and  the  biography  of  the  people 
concerned  have  been  fully  fixed  in  the  mind.  Only  as  this 
is  done  can  right  inferences  be  drawn  and  justifiable  ap- 
plications made.  The  facts  should  be  allowed  to  lie  in  so- 
lution as  long  as  possible  and  crystallize  naturally.  In 
making  a  selection  of  points  to  be  emphasized  thosesshould 
be  chosen  which  come  naturally  out  of  the  study  and  which 
are  homogeneous  in  character.  It  will  be  noted  in  the  above 
study  that  several  interesting  lines  of  investigation  were 
not  followed  up,  but  that  the  study  followed  very  closely 
the  contrast  between  the  spirit  of  the  Thessalonians  and 
that  of  the  Bereans  in  the  reception,  of  the  Gospel. 
(See  Lesson  XIV  on  Method.) 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.    Gregory,  pp.  23-27. 

How  to  Teach  the  Bible.    Gregory,  pp.  30-37. 

Teaching  and  Teachers.    Trumbull,  pp.  116-124. 

*The  Teacher  and  the  Child.    Mark,  pp.  69-87. 

Normal  Course.    Pease.    Second  Year.    pp.  156-159. 

Ways  of  Working.    Schauffler,  pp.  53-76. 

The  Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching.    DuBois,  pp.  103-131. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

Read  the  whole  chapter  (or  lesson)  through  once  for  the 
purpose  of  getting  a  general  idea  of  what  it  means.  When 
you  have  finished  this  reading,  close  the  book,  and  write 
a  brief  statement  in  answer  to  the  question:  "What  is  the 
point  of  this  passage?"  (This  direction  is  naturally  more 
applicable  to  the  study  of  a  piece  of  pure  literature,  than  of  a 
practical  essay  like  The  Point  of  Contact.) 

Read  the  chapter,  sentence  by  sentence,  paragraph  by  para- 
graph, trying  to  grasp  the  meaning  clearly,  precisely,  per- 
sonally. 

Some  of  the  words  contain  "buried  metaphors,"  pictures; 
see  that  you  see  these  pictures,  and  are  prepared  to  make 
others  see  them. 

Some  of  the  sentences  are  expressed  in  abstract  language, 
conveying  a  general  truth ;  find  concrete  illustrations  of  every 


THE    LESSON    STUDY  135 

one  of  these.  Where  the  author  uses  one  form  of  statement, 
use  another  of  your  own.  See  in  how  many  ways  you  can 
say  the  same  thing.  (There  are  many  ways  of  putting  things, 
as  there  are  many  flies  in  the  fisherman's  book.) 

This  is  the  step  of  clearness,  of  detail,  of  picturing,  of  am- 
plification and  enrichment  of  materials.  Its  purpose  is  to 
make  the  truth  clear,  definite,  concrete,  and  so  warm,  living, 
and  ready  for  action. 

Read  the  chapter,  paragraph  by  paragraph,  asking  yourself, 
"What  question  is  answered  by  this  paragraph?"  "What  short 
statement  will  precisely  express  the  point  of  this  paragraph 
(and  so  be  the  answer  to  the  question  just  framed)?"  "What 
maxim,  or  text,  or  proverb,  or  pithy  saying  applies  at  just  this 
point?"  "How  is  this  paragraph  related  to  the  whole?  Does 
it  express  a  new  thought,  or  amplify  one  already  developed? 
Does  it  suggest  a  paragraph  or  sentence  in  another  connec- 
tion? how  does  it  follow  from  what  precedes?  how  lead  to 
what  follows?  in  a  word,  if  it  is  a  link,  what  are  the  co-ordinate 
links? 

Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter  or  the  book,  with  heads 
and  sub-heads,  being  careful  not  to  make  heads  sub-heads, 
or  sub-heads  heads.  And,  with  all  this  thinking,  be  alert  for 
personal  meanings,  for  applications. 

This  is  the  step  of  comparing,  condensing,  generalizing, 
binding  together  into  wholes.  Its  purpose  is  to  get  to  the 
truth  by  weeding  out  ideas  that  seemed  true  when  standing 
alone,  but  which,  on  comparison,  are  seen  to  be  false;  and,  by 
massing  and  organizing  to  make  our  mental  forces  into  regu- 
lar troops,  instead  of  guerillas  and  bushwhackers. 

To  sum  up:  First,  a  rough  general  view,  such  as  a  civil 
engineer  might  gain  by  riding  over  the  country  he  is  to  sur- 
vey. Second,  clearness  as  to  facts;  warmth  in  details;  putting 
yourself  into  the  thing  seen,  or  a  thing  felt.  Third,  compact- 
ing parts  into  wholes,  seeing  ends  from  beginnings,  organizing 
for  action.  And  at  each  step  the  thought  of  personal  as- 
similation, and  of  use:  "What  does  this  mean  to  me?  Is  it 
true?  Could  I  defend  it?  Do  I  disagree  with  it,  and  why? 
How  can  I  use,  apply,  follow,  live  it?  How  make  it  live  in 
the  minds  and  lives  of  my  pupils?"  Syllabus  to  Point  of  Con- 
tact. Hervey,  pp.  3-5. 

"What?  Why?  What  of  it?"  is  a  plan  of  study  of  allitera- 
tive methods  for  the  teacher,  emphasized  by  Prof.  W.  C.  Wil- 
kinson, not  as  original  with  himself,  but  as  of  venerable  au- 
thority. "It  is,  in  fact,"  he  says,  "an  almost  immemorial 
orator's  analysis.  First,  the  facts;  next,  the  proof  of  the 
facts;  then  the  consequences  of  the  facts."  This  analysis  has 
often  been  expanded  into  one  known  as  "The  Five  W's:  When? 
Where?  Whom?  What?  Why?"  Teaching  and  Teachers. 
Trumbull,  p.  120. 

Goethe  says:  "Nothing  is  worse  than  a  teacher  who  knows 
only  as  much  as  he  has  to  make  known  to  the  scholar."  Teach- 
ing and  Teachers.  Trumbull,  p.  123. 


136  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

In  the  study  of  the  Sunday-school  lesson  the  teacher  should 
have  three  principal  ends  in  view:  1.  To  teach  a  thorough 
understanding  of  its  meaning;  2.  To  ascertain  the  practical 
lesson  which  it  teaches;  3.  To  find  the  illustrations  and  ex- 
planations by  which  it  can  be  made  plain  and  impressive  to 
his  class,  flow  to  Teach  the  Bible.  Gregory,  p,  30. 


THE    TEACHING   PLAN 


XXI.    THE  TEACHING  PLAN 

Among  the  advantages  of  preparing  a  teaching  plan  are 
the  following : 

1.  The  elimination  of  the  unessential.    When  the  drift 
of  the  lesson  and  its  central  thought  have  been  determined, 
it  will  be  comparatively  easy  to  separate  minor  and  inci- 
dental points  from  those  which  bear  directly  upon  the  main 
point  to  be  emphasized.    This  can  best  be  done  by  the  care- 
ful preparation  of  a  teaching  plan. 

2.  Economy  of  time.     Herein  lies  the  secret  of  being 
able  to  finish  the  lesson  within  the  lesson  period.    It  is  not 
the  amount  of  material  that  causes  so  many  teachers  to 
come,  to  the  end  of  the  lesson  period  and  find  that  they  have 
not  reached  the  main  point  of  the  lesson,  but  it  is  the  failure 
to  plan  the  material  in  such  a  way  that  what  is  essential 
may  be  presented  within  a  given  time, 

3.  The  lesson  that  is  presented  in  accordance  with  a 
teaching  plan  will  be  followed  in  logical  sequence,  and  on 
that  account  will  be  more  easily  remembered  by  those  who 
are  taught. 

4.  Better  results  are  secured,  the  arrangement  of  the 
points  of  contact,  the  right  setting  of  illustrations,  and  the 
orderly  leading  up  to  the  application  to  be  made. 


The  following  is  a  teaching  plan  for  a  lesson  in  Acts 
17 :1-15,  based  upon  the  material  secured  in  the  study  of 
our  last  lesson,  and  actually  worked  out  in  a  class  session : 

Lesson  Plan  for  Acts  17 :1-15,  especially  verses  10-13. 


138  THB    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

(Prepared  with  reference  to  a  class  of  boys  from  16-18 
in  mind.) 

1.  Preparation. 

A  great  international  complication  now  under  discussion. 
Two  countries  involved. 

One  open-minded,  receptive  to  new  influences. 
The  other  closed,  prejudiced,  tied  to  traditions. 

2.  Presentation. 

Read  around  Acts  17:10-13. 
The  Bereans : 

Displayed  openness  of  mind. 

Searched  the  Scriptures  daily. 

Studied  to  see  whether  these  things  were  so. 
The  Thessalonians : 

Go  back  and  read  Acts  17 :1-10. 

Map  showing  relative  location  of  and  distance  between 
Thessalonica  and  Berea. 

Would  not  receive  the  Gospel  themselves  and  would 
not  allow  others  to  receive  it. 

Traveled  fifty  miles  to  make  a  discord. 

Incited  the  mob  to  riot. 

3.  Association  or  Comparison. 

Note  the  contrast  between  the  Bereans  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  Thessalonians  on  the  other. 

Note  a  similar  contrast  in  the  reception  of  Christ,  by 
the  woman  of  Samaria  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Scribes  and 
Pharisees  on  the  other. 

The  same  kind  of  contrast  to  be  noted  in  the  business 
methods  of  two  men,  one  progressive,  up-to-date,  open- 
minded,  with  reference  to  new  methods,  searching  to  see 
whether  they  are  desirable;  the  other,  with  a  closed  mind, 
prejudiced  against  everything  that  is  new,  trying  to  hold 
others  back  in  their  progress. 

4.  Generalization. 

The  proper  attitude  toward  a  study  of  the  Scriptures, 


THE   TEACHING   PLAN  139 

or  any  other  truth,  one  of  open-mindedness,  sympathy,  and 
eager  search  and  inquiry. 

The  duty  of  honest  inquiry.  Douht  is  not  a  sin.  !The 
sin  is  in  the  closed  mind. 

5.  Application. 

Are  you  a  Thessalonian  or  a  Berean  ? 

Do  you  find  yourself  questioning  with  reference  to  state- 
ments that  are  made  to  you?  Not  a  wrong  attitude  if  ac- 
companied by  open-mindedness,  sympathy  and  a  desire  to 
know  the  truth. 

The  Bereans  believed.  Men  say,  "I  can't  believe. "  One 
cannot  believe  until  he  has  studied  something  to  believe, 

FIVE  STEPS  0£  THE  TEACHING  PLAN. 

1.  Preparation.     It  is  the  object  of  this  etep  to  effect 
in  tfce  student  a  relation  to  the  lesson,  to  establish  a  point 
of  contact.     This  is  usually  done  by  an  illustration.     If 
possible,  the  illustration  should  contain  a  point  similar 
to  that  to  be  emphasized  in  the  lesson.    Any  new  material 
should  be  introduced  under  this  heading. 

2.  Presentation.    Here  the  new  material  is  introduced. 
The  reading  of  the  passage  will  now  generally  be  in  order. 
The  facts  of  the  lesson  are  brought  out  and  their  connection 
with  the  facts  of  previous  lessons.    Maps  and  pictures  may 
be  introduced  at  this  point. 

3.  Association  or  comparison.    By  comparison,  contrast- 
ing, illustrations,  by  placing  the  material  in  new  relations, 
the  endeavor  is  here  made  to  get  further  suggestions.    This 
is  really  "the  working  up"  of  the  lesson. 

4.  Generalization.     We  have  now  the  introduction  or 
statement  of  general  principles  arising  out.  of  the  material 
secured  under  the  head  of  Presentation,  and  worked  up 
under  Comparison. 

5.  Application.    Here  we  have  the  relation  of  the  gen- 
eralization to  the  individual  life  of  the  strdent. 


140  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

'How  to  Teach  the  Bible.    Gregory,  pp.  38-44. 

Teaching  and  Teachers.    Trumbull,  pp.  125-137. 

*The  Teacher  and  the  Child.    Mark,  pp.  57-87,  154-165. 

Normal  Course.    Pease,  Second  Year,  pp.  160-163. 

*Primer  on  Teaching.    Adams,  pp.  67-90. 

How  to  Plan  a  Lesson.  Marianna  C.  Brown,  Ph.D.,  pp.  26- 
67.  (50  cents.) 

How  to  Conduct  the  Recitation.  Charles  McMurry,  Ph.D., 
pp.  14-20.  (25  cents.) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

Whereas,  with  few  exceptions,  there  had  been  a  large  amount 
of  teaching,  but  very  little  thinking  about  it,  the  nineteenth 
century  laid  new  emphasis  on  the  method  of  teaching.  Some 
of  the  finest  ideas  which  have  ever  entered  into  the  human 
mind  have  failed  of  their  influence,  because  the  men  that  had 
them  did  not  know  how  to  present  them.  On  the  other  hand, 
ideas  that  have  greatly  influenced  men  have  owed  much  to 
the  form  in  which  they  were  expressed.  The  vast  influence 
of  the  Bible  writers,  for  example,  does  not  reside  merely  in 
what  they  say,  but  in  the  manner  and  spirit  in  which  they 
say  it.  The  Teacher  and  the  Child.  Mark,  p.  58. 

In  the  work  of  instruction  each  methodical  unity  should  be 
carried  through  the  following  steps: 

1.  It  should  introduce  the  new  lesson  by  means  of  a  prepara- 
tory discussion. 

2.  Present  the  new  lesson. 

3.  Compare  the  new  in  its  parts  and  with  older  ideas  and 
their  combination. 

4.  Draw  out  the  general  results  of  this  comparison,  and  ar- 
range them  in  systematic  form. 

5.  Convert  the  knowledge  acquired  into  use. 

These  steps  may  be  fairly  illustrated  in  their  general  out- 
lines by  an  analogy  taken  from  the  work  of  a  farmer.  1.  The 
soil  is  ploughed,  harrowed,  and  made  ready  for  the  seed.  2. 
The  grain  is  sowed  upon  the  ready  soil  and  raked  in.  3.  The 
growing  grain  is  cultivated  and  the  weeds  destroyed.  4.  The 
harvest  is  brought  in.  5.  The  grain  is  used  for  practical  pur- 
poses of  food. 

The  analogy  is  so  complete  that  it  scarcely  calls  for  a  com- 
mentary. The  preparation  is  the  preparing  of  the  soil  of  the 
mind  for  the  seed-corn  of  instruction.  The  presentation  is 
sowing  the  seed  upon  this  prepared  soil  of  the  mind.  The 
third  stage  is  the  cultivation  of  the  growing  crop,  the  work- 
ing over  of  the  knowledge  Just  acquired  by  means  of  com- 
parison. The  fourth  step  is  the  harvest  time,  the  drawing 
out  of  the  general  truth  or  law  involved  in  the  lesson.  Finally, 
the  particular  uses  to  which  the  harvest  grain  is  put,  the 
application  of  acquired  knowledge  to  the  practical  uses  of  life. 
How  to  Conduct  the  Recitation.  McMurry,  pp.  16,  54. 


THE    TEACHING    PLAN  141 

Sometimes  when  our  aim  is  historical  or  biographical  we 
do  well  to  follow  the  course  of  the  history  pure  and  simple, 
merely  illustrating  our  lesson  by  reference  to  current  or 
familiar  events.  Slightly  differing  in  plan  and  conception 
from  the  historical  method  would  be  the  biological;  according 
to  which  we  should  follow  the  order  of  growth  and  develop- 
ment, and  take  nature's  story  rather  than  man's  as  our  guide. 
The  Teacher  and  the  Child.  Mark,  p.  80. 

Our  preparation  of  a  lesson  may  be  far  too  rigid;  that  is, 
if  we  intend  to  follow  out  that  lesson  on  precisely  those  pre- 
pared lines  when  we  come  with  it  into  class.  Our  preparation 
should  give  us  full  command  of  the  subject-matter  by  bringing  * 
into  shape  and  clearness  our  own  thoughts  upon  it;  and  gen- 
erally speaking,  the  lesson  will  follow  more  or  less  closely  the 
lines  we  ourselves  have  sketched  out.  But  every  lesson  should 
be  regarded  by  the  teacher  as  plastic  and,  in  a<  sense,  unfin- 
ished, until  the  interplay  of  thought  between  teacher  and 
pupils  gives  it  its  final  form.  The  Teacher  and  the  Child.  Mark, 
p.  74. 

It  does  not  require  a  prophet  to  see  that  the  five  steps 
in  careless  hands  will  degenerate  into  a  dry  mechanical  rou- 
tine. It  might  be  even  worse  than  text-book  lore,  for  a  good 
text-book  is  always  better  than  a  poor  teacher.  It  is  not  in- 
tended that  this  plan  and  these  principles  shall  make  a  slave 
of  the  teacher,  but  that  by  a  hard-earned  mastery  of  their 
details,  and  by  a  successful  application  of  them  to  the  con- 
crete materials  of  study  he  gradually  works  his  way  out  into 
the  clear  daylight  of  conscious  power.  In  this  way  the  teacher 
becomes  a  skilled  architect,  with  clear  ideas  of  the  strength 
and  resistance  of  materials.  How  to  Conduct  the  Recitation. 
McMurry,  pp.  17-18. 

John  Bright  is  reported  as  saying,  that  whenever  he  made 
a  speech  he  had  a  care  to  know  in  advance  how  he  was  to 
begin  that  speech.  He  commonly  knew  what  was  to  be  the 
substance  of  that  speech;  although  circumstances  might 
change  much  of  its  tenor  or  its  phrasing  as  it  proceeded.  But, 
whatever  play  there  might  be  at  any  other  point,  he  always 
knew,  before  he  began  a  speech,  how  he  was  going  to  end  it 
Teaching  and  Teachers.  Trumbull,  p.  133. 


PART  FOUR 


'FINAL  SURVEY 


TEACHER'S   RELATION   TO   STUDENT  145 


/ERS1TY  ) 

og^S" 

XXII.    THE  TEACHER'S  RELATION"  TO  THE  IN- 
DIVIDUAL STUDENT 

We  have  considered  "The  Teacher :  His  Work,  Qualifica- 
tions and  Preparation" ;  "The  Student :  His  Physical,  Men- 
tal and  Spiritual  Nature";  "The  Lesson:  The  Teacher's 
Approach  to  the  Student."  The  three  remaining  lessons 
will,  in  a  sense,  be  a  review  of  those  which  have  preceded 
under  the  above  captions,  for  while  they  will  be  studies  in 
new  topics,  they  will  bring  in  review  before  the  mind  many 
of  the  principles  already  discussed.  That  portion  of  the 
hour  usually  given  to  a  demonstration  of  a  method  of  teach- 
ing might  profitably  be  spent  for  these  three  sessions  in 
reviewing  the  entire  course  up  to  this  point  in  preparation 
for  the  examination,  seven  lessons  at  each  session. 

Up  to  this  point  we  have  been  examining,  to  a  very  large 
extent,  the  relations  of  the  teacher  and  the  student  in  the 
classroom.  In  the  lesson  now  before  us  we  have  to  examine 
some  of  those  relations  which  should  exist  between  teacher 
and  taught,  not  only  in  the  classroom,  but  outside  as  well — 
"the  teacher's  other  work  than  teaching." 

1.  We  remind  ourselves,  fiist  of  all,  of  the  principle  to 
which  we  have  already  given  some  attention  in  our  second 
lesson,  that  we  must  not  divorce  the  work  of  teaching  from 
the  personality  of  the  teacher.  A  crude  conception  of  in- 
struction is  that  it  is  a  perfunctory  passing  over  by  the 
teacher  to  the  student  of  certain  facts  or  items  of  knowl- 
edge. A  truer  conception  of  teaching  is  that  it  is  a  flowing 
of  influence  through  the  personality  of  the  teacher  to  the 
student,  a  saturation  of  the  knowledge  which  the  teacher 


146  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

would  convey  with  the  character  of  the  teacher  himself. 
What  Phillips  Brooks  said  of  preaching  is  equally  true  of 
teaching :  "Preaching  is  the  communication  of  truth  by  man 
to  man.  It  has  in  it  two.  essential  elements,  truth  and  per- 
sonality. Neither  of  these  can  it  spare,  and  still  be  preach- 
ing. *  *  The  truth  must  come  really  through  the  per- 
son, not  merely  over  his.  lips,  nor  merely  into-  his  under- 
standing and  out  through  his  pen.  It  must  come  through 
his  character,  his  affections,  his  whole  intellectual  and 
moral  being.  *  *  I  think  that,  granting  -  equal  intelli- 
gence and  study,  here  is  the  great  difference  which  we  feel 
between  two  preachers  of  the  Word.  The  Gospel  has  come 
over  one  of  them.  The  Gospel  has  come  through  the  other." 

This  means,  among  other  things,  that  the  teacher  must 
love  the  student  and  endeavor  to  influence  him,  not  only 
through  his  intellect,  but  through  his  affectional  nature  as 
well.  "Aim  at  the  heart  in  your  preaching"  was  the  ad- 
vice of  an  experienced  preacher  to  a  class  of  graduating 
divinity  students.  "Not  every  man-  has  a  head,  but  every 
man  has  a  heart.  If  you  aim  at  the  head  you  will  miss  some 
of  your  hearers.  If  you  aim  at  the  heart  you  will  hit  them 
all.  Aim  at  the  heart." 

There  is  one  very  apparent  reason  why  this  personal 
and  intimate  relation  should  be  sustained  between  teacher 
and  student.  Except  for  it  the  instruction  of  the  teacher 
will  not  carry  sufficient  weight  to  offset  the  evil  influences 
which  are  at  work  in  the  student's  life  daily  and  hourly, 
and  which  it  is  one  of  the  duties  of  the  teacher  to  overcome. 
The  teacher  who  is  with  the  members  of  his  Bible  class 
but  one  hour  in  the  week,  and  knows  nothing  of  their  life 
beyond  that  hour,  can  hardly  be  expected  to  stem  the  tide 
of  influences  that  are  at  work  upon  the  character  of  the 
student  during  the  other  one  hundred  and  sixty-seven  hours 
of  the  week. 

2.  Most  of  the  following  influences  in  the  life  of  the 


TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  STUDENT     147 

student  may  be  contributory  to  the  end  that  the  teacher 
has  in  view  in  his  instruction  of  them,  or  they  may  be 
opposed  to  that  end.  Hence  the  necessity  that  the  teacher 
should  be  familiar  with  them  in  the  case  of  each  individual 
student  and  enter  into  them  so  far  as  possible. 

(1)  The  teacher  should  be  familiar  with  the  home  life 
of  the  student  and  know  whether  the  influences  there  are 
making  for  or  against  his  advancement  in  religious  instruc- 
tion.   Intelligent,  and  systematic  co-operation  between  par- 
ents and  teachers  in  the  instruction  of  youth  is  most  de- 
sirable. 

(2)  Familiarity  with  the  character  of  the  business  in 
which  the-  members  of  his  class  may  be  engaged,  its  hard- 
ships* or  its  peculiar  temptations,  will  greatly  assist  the 
teacher  in  shaping  his  instruction  and  in  entering  sympa- 
thetically into  their  business  aspirations  and  drawbacks. 

(3)  The  same  principle  holds  with  reference  to  younger 
classes,  theimembers  of  which  may  still  be  attending  school. 
Here,  notably  a  study  of  the  methods  of  instruction  which 
obtain  in  the  schools  among  boys  or  young  men  of  the  age 
of  his  students,  will  be  a  valuable  assistance  to  the  Bible 
class  teacher. 

(4)  The  companionships  of  a  boy  or  young  man  may 
make  or  mar  the  character.    They  will  go  far  towards  d&- 
stroying  all  the  good  effects  of  a  teacher's  instruction.    On 
the  other  hand  they  may  be  made  to  subserve  the  work  of 
instruction.  The  teacher  should  attempt  the  difficult  task  of 
wisely  guiding  the  student  in  his  selection  of  companions. 

(5)  What  is  true  of  companions  is  equally  true  of  rec- 
reations.   The  more  the  teacher  can  enter  into  these  with 
his  students  the  more  easily  will  he  be  able  to  guide  them. 
This,  too,  will  furnish  a  key  to  the  question  of  companion- 
ships. 

(6)  In  no  particular  may  the  teacher  be  more  help- 
ful to  the  student  than  in  advising  him  about  his  reading 


148     THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

— suggesting  books  that  are  both  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive, and  adapted  to  the  particular  stage  of  his  growth  in 
the  mental  life. 

(7)  But  with  no  point  of  the  student's  life  should  the 
teacher  be  more  familiar  than  with  besetting  tempta- 
tions, those  which  come  to  him  from  the  nature  of  his  home, 
his  occupation,  his  companions,  his  recreation,  his  reading. 
These  are  to  be  met  by  offsetting  influences  which  the 
teacher  should  study  to  set  in  motion  lest  the  instruction 
of  the  classroom  may  be  entirely  neutralized  by  them. 

3.  The  teacher  may  establish  social  relations  with  his 
students  by  visiting  them  in  their  homes,  or  inviting  them 
individually  or  collectively  to  his  own  home,  or  by  means  of 
outings,  or  visits  to  points  of  interest.     It  has  been  said 
that  the  two  principal  positions  of  the  two  great  English 
teachers,  Arnold  and  Bowen,  were  that,  first,  the  teacher 
must  at  all  hazards  secure  interest,  and,  second,  that  the 
students  must  be  at  ease  with  the  teacher. 

4.  Absentees   should   be   followed   up   with   scrupulous 
care,  especially  after  their  first  absences,  either  by  note  or 
a  personal  visit.     The  habit  of  absence  once  formed,  like 
other  habits,  is  difficult  to  break. 

5.  The  connection  between  teacher  and  student  may  be 
greatly  strengthened  by  the  writing  of  letters.    A  letter  is 
more  of  an  event  in  the  life  of  young  people  than  among 
those  who  are  older,  and  will  be  gladly  welcomed.    Notably 
will  such  letters  be  effective  during  a  period  of  separation 
between   teacher   and   student,   either   when  the  teacher 
may  be  called  away  on  a  trip,  or  when  for  any  reason  the 
student  may  be  absent.    Some  teachers  keep  a  roll  of  the 
birthdays  of  the  members  of  their  classes  and  write  to  them 
as  these  come  around.    A  letter  at  such  a  time  may  be  very 
effective. 

6.  Illness  among  members  of  the  class  especially  should 
not  be  overlooked.    A  visit  at  such  a  time,  some  delicate 


TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  STUDENT     149 

attention,  will  be  greatly  appreciated,  and  a  tie  is  apt  to  be 
thus  formed  that  cannot  be  easily  broken. 

7.  But  by  far  the  most  important  work  that  the  teacher 
has  to  do  with  the  individual  student  is  to  win  him  to  a 
complete  acceptance  of  Christ.  The  Bible  class  teacher  has 
a  peculiarly  favorable  relation  to  the  student  to  accomplish 
this  result.  It  is  his  province  to  lay  a  broad  foundation 
of  religious  instruction  which  is  the  first  requisite  in  form- 
ing* an  intelligent  personal  relation  to  Christ.  Young  men 
and  boys  who  will  not  confide  in  their  parents  or  most  in- 
timate friends  concerning  their  religious  feelings  and  con- 
victions will  often  respond  to  the  approaches  of  a  tactful 
and  sympathetic  Bible  class  teacher  on  this  subject.  The 
persistence  and  earnest  solicitude  of  such  a  teacher  have  led 
thousands  of  young  people  to  dedicate  their  lives  to  God. 
Especially  should  the  teacher  avail  himself  of  those  periods 
in  the  life  of  the  student  at  which  experience  has  demon- 
strated that  they  are  most  sensitive  to  leadings  of  this  kind. 
The  youth  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  should  be  the  object  of  the 
most  tender  solicitude  on  the  part  of  his  teacher,  who 
should  with  the  greatest  wisdom  and  tact  watch  his  oppor- 
tunities for  leading  him  into  conscious  relation  with  his 
Lord. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

^Teachers  and  Teaching.    Trumbull,  pp.  241-377. 

How  to  Teach  the  Bible.    Gregory,  pp.  74-78. 

Principles  and  Ideas  for  the  Sunday-school.  Burton  and 
Mathews,  pp.  98-109. 

Unconscious  Tuition.    Huntington. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

I  can  particularly  recall  two  of  my  teachers,  out  of  several. 
One  made  it  his  whole  endeavor  to  instruct.  He  declared  the 
truth  explicitly  and  with  plainness;  but  he  was  at  no  special 
pains  to  influence  his  scholars  personally.  The  other  was  a 
man  of  less  knowledge,  but  was  possessed  with  zeal  for  souls. 
His  "teaching"  was  out  of  the  question-book,  and  was  some- 
what perfunctory.  But  when  the  "lesson"  was  over,  then  that 
teacher  would  reach  forward  to  his  class,  and,  laying  his 
hands  tenderly  on  the  knees  of  one  scholar  or  another,  would 


150  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

look  into  the  scholar's  eyes,  with  eyes  that  were  brimming 
with  loving  tears,  and  would  say,  with  a  tremulous  tenderness 
that  carried  the  weight  of  his  whole  soul  into  his  words:  "My 
dear  boy,  I  do  wish  you  would  love  Jesus,  and  give  him  your 
whole  heart!"  All  the  instruction  out  of  the  question-book 
of  one  of  those  classes,  and  out  of  the  great  brain  of  the  teacher 
of  the  other  class,  has  long  ago  passed  from  the  mind  of  the 
scholar  who  tells  of  this;  but  the  influence  of  that  persistent 
pleader  for  Christ  and  for  souls  is  fresh  and  potent  to-day; 
and  the  pressure  of  these  loving  hands  on  that  scholar's  knee 
is  felt,  after  half  a  century,  as  while  those  faithful  hands  still 
rested  there.  Teaching  and  Teachers.  Trumbull,  p.  254. 

We  are  taught,  and  we  teach,  by  something  about  us  that 
never  goes  into  language  at  all.  I  believe  that  often  this  is 
the  very  highest  kind  of  teaching,  most  charged  with  moral 
power,  most  apt  to  go  down  among  the  secret  springs  of  con- 
duct, most  effectual  for  vital  issues,  for  the  very  reason  that 
it  is  spiritual  in  its  character,  noiseless  in  its  pretentious,  and 
constant  in  its  operation.  Unconscious  Tuition.  Hunting- 
ton,  p.  211. 

Tho'  truths  in  manhood  darkly  join, 

Deep-seated  in  our  mystic  frame, 

We  yield  all  blessing  to  the  name 
Of  Him  that  made  them  current  coin; 

For  wisdom  dealt  with  mortal  powers, 
Where  truth  in  closest  words  shall  fall, 
When  truth  embodied  in  a  tale 

Shall  enter  in  at  lowly  doors. 

And  so  the  Word  had  breath,  and  wrought 
With  human  hands  the  creed  of  creeds 
In  loveliness  of  perfect  deeds, 

More  strong  than  all  poetic  thought; 

Which  he  may  read  that  binds  the  sheaf, 
Or  builds  the  house,  or  digs  the  grave, 
And  those  wild  eyes  that  watch  the  wave 

In  roarings  round  the  coral  reef. 

— Tennyson. 

There  is  still  another  department  of  week-day  work  which 
the  benevolent  Sunday-school  teacher  will  find  it  pleasant  to 
perform.  It  consists  of  the  various  friendly  services  which  he 
may  render  to  his  pupils  in  advising  and  aiding  them  In  the 
selection  of  employment,  the  performance  of  their  duties,  the 
encounter  of  ordinary  trials,  or  in  more  serious  difficulties  in 
which  they  may  be  occasionally  involved.  It  is,  in  short,  to 
act  the  part  of  an  elder  and  wiser  friend,  to  whom  they  may 
appeal  for  assistance  and  counsel,  and  who  may  help  them  to 
steer  clear  of  many  of  the  temptations  and  difficulties  of  life. 
A  wise  teacher  in  this  way  may  aid  also  in  the  ordinary  educa- 


TEACHER'S   RELATION   TO    STUDENT  151 

tion  of  his  pupils  by  kindly  inquiries  about  their  studies; 
offering  suggestions  in  regard  to  their  reading,  and  to  the 
division  and  employment  of  their  time,  and  counsels  as  to 
their  companionships  and  amusements.  How  to  Teach  the 
Bible.  Gregory,  pp.  77-78. 

At  the  busiest  period  of  his  life,  when  he  was  preparing 
lectures  which  filled  his  class-room  with  crowds  of  students 
and  publishing  the  books  which  won  him  a  world-wide  reputa- 
tion, he  regularly  spent  four  hours  a  day  walking  with  stu- 
dents, besides  having  one  student  at  dinner  with  him  and 
another  at  supper.  Imago  Ghristi.  Stalker,  p,  278. 


152  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 


XXIII.    THE  TEACHER'S  MISTAKES 

1.  In  regarding  telling  as  teaching.     It  cannot  be  too 
often  repeated  that  "telling  is  not  teaching."     Only  that 
which  the  student  thinks  out  for  himself  becomes  a  part  of 
his  mental  and  spiritual  equipment.     It  may  be  easier  to 
impart  the  information  to  the  student  than  to  lead  him 
through  the  comparatively  painful  process  of  discovering 
for  himself,  but  the  imparting  of  information  is  not  all  of 
teaching.    A  form  of  this  mistake  is  to  allow  a  bright  stu- 
dent to  absorb  the  time  of  the  class.     The  telling  of  the 
answer  to  every  question  by  one  or  a  few  of  the  more  alert 
members  of  the  class  is  as  objectionable  as  the  giving  of 
the  answer  by  the  teacher. 

2.  In  regarding  knowledge  as  an  end  in  itself.    Charac- 
ter is  the  end  of  education.    Knowledge  is  only  a  means  to 
character.     The  teacher's  work,  therefore,  is  to  lead  the 
student  through  knowledge  to  character.    In  the  spiritual 
realm  mere  knowledge  is  not  productive  of  spiritual  life 
any  more  than  in  the  intellectual  realm  mere  knowledge  is 
productive  of  power. 

3.  In  regarding  the  subject  as  more  important  than  the 
student.    It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  subject-matter 
even  in  biblical  instruction  is  not  an  end  in  itself.     The 
statements  of  the  Bible  are  the  channel  through  which  the 
teacher  conveys  to  the  student  a  knowledge  of  God  and 
spiritual  truth  and  influences  him  to  a  life  of  righteousness. 

4.  In  thinking  that  it  is  sufficient  to  keep  just  ahead  of 
the  student.    It  is  only  as  the  teacher  has  fathomed  all  the 


THE   TEACHER'S   MISTAKES  153 

depths  of  a  subject,  explored  it  in  all  its  length  and  breadth, 
and  studied  the  relations  of  its  various  parts,  that  he  is 
fully  prepared  to  guide  the  student  intelligently  even  over 
a  portion  of  it.  The  teacher  whose  spiritual  experience  is 
shallow  will  find  himself  powerless  when  he.  comes  to  lead 
his  student  into  the  larger  spiritual  life.  Henry  Moore  said 
to  Southey,  who  asked  him  why  he  could  not  write  a  life  of 
John  Wesley,  "Sir,  the  well  is  deep  and  there  is  nothing  to 
draw  with." 

5.  In  neglecting  fresh  preparation  for  each  lesson.    The 
manna  must  be  gathered  each  day  for  the  uses  of  that  day. 
The  fact  that  the  teacher  has  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
subject  to  be  taught,  or  has  covered  the  lesson  with  other 
classes,  should  not  keep  him  from  studying  the  subject  in 
hand  in  the  light  of  later  knowledge  and  experience. 

6.  In  assuming  that  the  same  mental  faculties  are  not 
used  in  the  study  of  the  Bible  as  in  the  study  of  any  other 
subject.    A  false  distinction  is  sometimes  drawn  between 
intellectual  and  devotional  Bible  study  as  though  all  the 
powers  of  the  intellect  were  not  brought  into  requisition  in 
the  devotional  use  of  the  Bible.     Devotional  Bible  study 
may  be  more  than  intellectual  Bible  study,  but  cannot 
exclude  it. 

7.  In  ignoring  the  physical  life  of  the  student  in  his 
mental  and  spiritual  instruction.    The  body  conditions  the 
mind  and  the  spirit.     Anything  that  affects  the  physical 
comfort  or  welfare  of  the  student  may  effectually  prevent 
him  from  receiving  clear  apprehensions  of  the  truth,  or 
from  wanting  to  adopt  it  into  his  life.    From  fresh  air  in 
the  classroom  to  the  kind  of  recreation  which  he  enjoys, 
the  teacher  should  be  fully  familiar  with  the  physical  as- 
pects of  his  student's  life. 

8.  In  not  suiting  the  lesson  material  to  the  age  of  the 
student.     A  given  lesson  might  be  regarded  as  so  much 
cloth  from  which  a  suit  is  to  be  made.    No  tailor  thinks  of 


154  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

cutting  the  cloth  until  he  has  learned  the  measurements  of 
the  person  for  whom  the  suit  is  intended.  The  same  lesson 
material  may  be  worked  up  into  an  entirely  different  gen- 
eralization and  application,  as  it  is  to  be  taught  to  a  boy  of 
twelve,  a  youth  of  eighteen,  or  a  man  of  twenty-four. 

9.  In  teaching  boys  principles  that  cannot  be  immedi- 
ately applied.    Boys  are  impatient  of  delay  in  putting  into 
action  plans  and  purposes  that  are  to  be  wrought  out. 
Ideals  should  be  presented  that  will  admit  of  immediate 
effort  at  realization.     The  application  of  the  lesson  that 
belongs  to  the  man  should  not  be  brought  to  the  attention 
of  the  boy. 

10.  In  trying  to  teach  without  first  having  order  and 
attention.     The  teacher  should  not  commence  the  actual 
study  of  the  lesson  with  lack  of  attention  any  more  than  he 
would  commence  the  lesson  in  the  absence  of  the  students 
and  proceed  with  it  after  their  dismissal.    Much  depends 
upon  starting  right.    The  step  of  preparation  is  all  impor- 
tant.   An  illustration,  a  startling  question,  a  point  of  con- 
tact is  needed  to  call  in  the  wandering  mental  activities  of 
the  student  and  rivet  his  attention  on  the  subject  in  hand. 

11.  In  failing  to  connect  new  truth  with  previous  acquisi- 
tions.   What  does  the  student  already  know  into  which  this 
new  thought  can  be  conveyed  or  to  which  it  may  be  attached 
should  be  the  question  of  the  teacher  with  the  preparation 
of  each  lesson.    Especially  in  the  realm  of  religious  instruc- 
tion should  the  teacher  seek  to  find  a  point  in  the  experi- 
ence of  the  student  on  which  to  base  his  teaching. 

12.  In  insisting  upon  the  language  of  the  book  in  the 
recitation.    Verbal  memory  is  not  the  most  important  kind 
of  retention.    It  is  far  from  being  an  evidence  of  the  appre- 
ciation of  the  lesson  by  the  student.    While  the  memorizing 
of  Scripture  has  its  important  place  the  student  should  be 
tested  by  being  asked  to  put  the  statements  of  the  Bible 
into  his  own  language. 


THE    TEACHER'S    MISTAKES  155 

13.  In  neglecting  the  picture  element  in  instruction. 
The  Bible  is  at  many  points  a  book  of  pictures.    He  who 
has  no  imaginative  instincts  cannot  fully  understand  it. 
Whether  it  be  the  material  picture  made  by  the  artist  and 
photographer  and  presented  to  the  eye,  or  the  mental  pic- 
ture presented  by  the  teacher  to  the  imagination,  either  is 
of  great  importance  in  conveying  an  adequate  apprehension 
of  the  lesson. 

14.  In  useless  stirring  of  the  emotions.     This  mistake 
may  be  made  in  exciting  the  feelings  to  too  great  a  tension 
from  which  there  is  sure  to  be  an  unhealthy  reaction,  or  in 
arousing  the  emotions  without  furnishing  an  immediate 
outlet  for  their  legitimate  use.    The  stirring  of  the  religious 
feelings  should  naturally  lead  to  an  appropriate  effort  of 
the  will  in  the  line  of  endeavor. 

15.  In  expecting  a  mental  and  spiritual  upheaval  as  a 
necessary  attendant  of  conversion.    It  should  be  expected 
of  the  child  who  has  had  normal  religious  instruction  from 
his  earliest  days  of  conscious  intelligence  that  he  should 
pass  naturally  and  easily  during  the  adolescent  period  into 
a  personal  acceptance  of  Christ,  and  the  responsibilities  that 
accompany  that  relationship.    The  adult,  the  trend  of  whose 
life  has  not  been  opposed  to  the  teaching  of  Christ,  may  also 
be  expected,  though  with  a  greater  effort  of  the  will  than 
in  the  case  of  the  youth,  to  come  into  conscious  relations 
with  Him  without  the  storm  and  stress  of  the  conversion, 
for  example,  of  Paul. 

16.  In  using  language  unfamiliar  to  the  student.    There 
must  be  a  common  basis  of  communication  between  teacher 
and  taught  in  order  to  effective  teaching.    For  a  teacher  to 
think  and  speak  in  language  far  removed  from  that  which 
the  student  uses  is  the  same  kind  of  absurdity,  though  less 
in  degree,  as  it  would  be  for  an  Englishman  who  can  speak 
no  French  to  attempt  to  teach  a  Frenchman  who  can  speak 
no  English. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

17.  In  trying  to  teach  too  much  in  one  lesson.    Not  what 
the  student  hears  but  what  he  takes  in  and  remembers  is 
the  test  of  the  value  of  a  lesson.    Better  one  or  two  points 
firmly  fixed  in  the  mind  than  a  dozen  hastily  skimmed  over 
without  assimilation.     Industry,  not  hurry,  should  be  the 
key-word.    Especially  does  this  obtain  in  religious  instruc- 
tion, in  which  truth  must  be  given  time  to  sink  into  the  life 
and  develop  into  character. 

18.  In   forcing  unnatural   applications   of   the   lesson. 
Exotic  plants  are  not  the  most  sturdy.    Teachings  that  do 
not  grow  naturally  out  of  the  lesson,  drawing  their  power 
directly  from  the  truth  on  which  the  lesson  is  based,  will  not 
be  the  most  fruitful  in  the  student's  life.    Better  draw  no 
moral  at  all  than  artificially  graft  teachings,  which  it  is  de- 
sired to  impress,  on  lessons  to  which  they  do  not  belong.    A 
similar  error  is  sometimes  made  by  teachers  in  their  study 
of  the  lesson  in  hastening  to  gather  applications  for  the 
lesson  before  making  a  full  study  of  the  lesson  material. 

19.  In  neglecting  reviews.    This  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon mistakes  of  inexperienced  teachers.    Under  the  pres- 
sure of  limited  time  the  temptation  is  to  hurry  on  to  the 
end  of  the  lesson  in  forgetf ulness  of  the  fact  that  "not  what 
a  man  gains  but  what  he  keeps  constitutes  his  wealth." 

20.  In  putting  long  and  involved  questions.    The  mind 
of  the  student  should  not  be  embarrassed  by  the  necessity 
of  deciphering  the  meaning  of  the  questions.    It  is  sup- 
posed to  have  enough  to  do  to  recall  and  frame  the  answer 
to  the  question,  which  should  be  so  simple  and  transparent 
as  not  to  detain  the  powers  of  the  mind  in  its  solution  be- 
fore proceeding  to  the  preparation  of  the  answer. 

21.  In  not  exercising  patience  in  securing  replies  to 
questions.    This  mistake  may  be  shown  over  the  slowness  of 
the  student  in  furnishing  correct  answers  to  the  question, 
which  may  oftentimes  be  due  to  the  awkwardness  of  the 
teacher  in  framing  the  questions,  or;  what  is  more  common, 


THE    TEACHER'S    MISTAKES  157 

lack  of  patience  may  be  displayed  in  the  readiness  of  the 
teacher  to  supply  the  answer  himself  when  he  finds  that  it 
is  not  immediately  forthcoming  from  the  class. 

22.  In  using  illustrations  from  fields  not  familiar  to  the 
student.     This  mistake  is  a  violation  of  the  very  funda- 
mental principle  of  an  illustration  which  is  supposed  to  be 
something  that  sheds  light  on  an  unfamiliar  subject.    The 
folly  of  using  something  unfamiliar  to  shed  light  on  some- 
thing that  is  likewise  unfamiliar  is  most  apparent. 

23.  In  teaching  without  a  definite  end  in  view.    The  very 
first  question  the  teacher  should  ask  himself  after  he  has 
gathered  his  lesson  material,  and  before  it  is  organized, 
should  be,  "What  is  my  object  in  teaching  this  lesson? 
What  particular  point  am  I  to  impress  upon  the  class? 
What  is  the  dominant  impression  I  desire  to  make  ?"   This 
having  been  determined  he  should  not  lose  sight  of  it  until 
the  lesson  has  been  completed. 

24.  In  dwelling  upon  minor  points  in  the  lesson.    This 
mistake  comes  from  the  lack  of  a  comprehensive  teaching 
plan,  from  a  failure  to  gather  all  the  lesson  material  to- 
gether and  to  weigh  the  relative  value  of  points  secured  and 
then  to  cast  the  whole  in  such  form  as  to  lead  up  to  a  defi- 
nite end.    In  short,  this  common  error  arises  from  a  lack  of 
study  and  method. 

25.  In  regarding  instruction  as  the  sole  work  of  the 
teacher.     This  mistake  is  kindred  to  the  one  of  regarding 
the  subject-matter  as  of  greater  importance  than  the  stu- 
dent.   It  must  not  be  overlooked  that  the  teacher  has  to  do 
with  a  life  full  of  spiritual  possibilities  and  that  all  agen- 
cies, whether  of  instruction,  personal  example,  or  influences 
of  friendship,  should  come  within  the  sphere  of  the  teacher's 
use.    The  disciples  of  Jesus  were  not  simply  His  disciples, 
they  were  His  friends,  and  all  the  influences  of  friendship, 
as  well  as  of  instruction,  were  brought  by  Him  to  bear  upon 
their  development. 


158  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES, 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 
•Mistakes  in  Teaching.    Hughes. 
How  to  Teach  the  Bible.    Gregory,  pp.  67-69. 
The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.     Gregory,  pp.  25-27;   46-47: 
60-64;  78-80;  102-104;  116-117;  132-134. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

The  teacher  should  lead  or  guide  his  pupils  through  the 
garden  of  knowledge,  and  show  them  which  kinds  of  fruit  are 
beneficial  and  which  injurious;  he  should  also  show  them  the 
best  means  of  obtaining  the  fruit,  but  he  should  not  pluck  it 
for  them,  and  eat  it  for  them  and  digest  it  for  them.  He  should 
teach  his  scholars  how  to  think ;  he  should  not  do  the  thinking 
for  them.  Mistakes  in  Teaching.  Hughes,  p.  93. 

In  the  same  way,  writers  for  children  often  seem  to  sup- 
pose that  they  are  placing  themselves  on  the  child's  plane  by 
the  use  of  certain  kinds  of  youthful  expressions  and  by  a  kind 
of  forced  intimacy  of  manner,  while  the  situations,  the  motives 
and  raw  material  out  of  which  the  story  or  article  is  made, 
are  foreign  to  the  child's  perception,  thought  or  feeling.  The 
Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching.  DuBois,  p.  86. 

In  connection  with  this  clear,  intelligible  use  of  words,  the 
teacher  should  take  the  child's  mind  back  to  its  own  past  ex- 
periences, should  remind  him  of  facts  in  his  experience,  the 
recollection  of  which  may  contribute  to  the  production  of  a 
distinct  idea  of  the  place,  scene  or  event.  Thus  in  describing 
an  historical  event  the  several  features  should  as  far  as  pos- 
sible be  related  to  analogous  events  in  the  child's  small  world. 
The  Teacher's  Hand  Book  of  Psychology.  Sully,  p.  296. 

There  is  first  of  all  the  law  of  transmutation.  These  great 
rich  feelings  that  sweep  through  the  soul  are  not  ends  in  them- 
selves. Unfortunately,  many  go  to  the  theatres  or  read  the 
thrilling  book,  merely  for  the  excitement  of  the  emotions  pro- 
duced. But  every  engineer  understands  that  he  must  not  fire 
up  the  engine  unless  he  has  some  work  to  do.  The  feelings 
are  aroused  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  motive  power  to 
some  great  action.  And  if  the  emotions  are  quickened  and  the 
aspirations  stirred,  to  be  forgotten  again  in  an  hour,  then  the 
soul  is  injured.  Little  by  little  the  finer  feelings  will  harden, 
the  soul  will  put  on  a  veneer,  and  It  will  be  all  but  impossible 
to  reach  these  persons.  The  Feelings:  Their  Uses  and  Laws. 
A  sermon  by  Newell  Dwight  HilHs. 

A  Commission  from  the  British  Parliament  was  once  set  to 
investigate  the  language  of  the  coal-miners  and  other  laborers 
of  England,  to  ascertain  the  possibility  of  diffusing  useful  in- 
formation among  them  by  means  of  tracts  and  books.  It  was 
found,  as  reported,  that  their  knowledge  of  language,  in  a  large 
number  of  cases  examined,  was  too  meagre  to  allow  of  such 
means  of  instruction.  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.  Gregory, 
p.  63. 


THB    TEACHER'S   MISTAKES  159 

Study  constantly  and  carefully  the  pupil's  language  to  learn 
what  words  he  uses  and  the  meanings  he  gives  them.  Secure 
from  him  as  full  a  statement  as  possible  of  his  knowledge  of 
the  subject,  to  learn  both  his  ideas  and  his  mode  of  expressing 
them,  and  to  help  him  to  correct  his  language.  Express  your 
thoughts  as  far  as  possible  in  the  pupil's  words,  carefully  cor- 
recting any  defect  in  the  meaning  he  gives  them.  Use  the 
simplest  and  fewest  words  that  will  express  the  idea.  Un- 
necessary words  add  to  the  child's  work  and  increase  the 
danger  of  misunderstanding.  Use  short  sentences,  and  of  the 
simplest  construction.  Long  sentences  tire  the  attention, 
while  short  ones  both  stimulate  and  rest  the  mind.  The  Seven 
Laws  of  Teaching.  Gregory,  p.  59. 

A  more  serious  fault  is  that  of  those  who,  failing  to  find 
anything  in  the  lesson,  try  to  graft  something  upon  it,  and 
make  it  a  mere  cart  to  carry  their  own  fancies  on.  The  Seven 
Laws  of  Teaching.  Gregory,  p.  26-27. 

The  first  violation  of  the  law  is  the  total  neglect  of  reviews. 
This  is  the  folly  of  the  utterly  poor  and  idle  teacher.  Second 
comes  the  wholly  inadequate  reviews.  This  is  the  fault  of  the 
hurried  and  impatient  teacher,  who  is  more  anxious  to  get 
through  the  book  than  to  get  the  book  through  the  mind  of 
his  pupils.  The  third  mistake  is  that  of  delaying  all  reviews 
till  the  end  of  the  quarter  when,  the  lessons  being  wholly  for- 
gotten, the  review  amounts  to  a  poor  and  hurried  relearning, 
with  little  interest  and  less  profit.  The  fourth  blunder  is  that 
of  degrading  the  review  into  a  lifeless  repetition  of  the  same 
questions  and  answers  as  those  used  at  first.  This  has  the 
form  of  a  review  without  its  power.  The  Seven  Laws  of 
Teaching.  Gregory,  p.  133. 


160  THE   TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 


XXIV.    JESUS  AS  A  TEACHER 

1.  Preaching  and  teaching.     While  everyone  feels  that 
there  is  a  difference  between  preaching  and  teaching,  it  is  a 
difference  that  is  not  easily  analyzed  or  described.    The  fol- 
lowing distinctions  may  therefore  be  subject  to  modifica- 
tions and  will  certainly  not  be  acceptable  to  all : 

(1)  The  preacher  as  a  rule  presents  great  principles  or 
truths  without  necessarily  disclosing  the  processes  by  which 
these  results  have  been  reached.     The  teacher  deals  with 
certain  facts,  and  the  processes  by  which  these  facts  are 
developed  into  generalization  axe  carried  on  in  the  class- 
room. 

(2)  The  method  of  the  preacher  is  one  of  inspiration,  the 
method  of  the  teacher  is  one  of  instruction,  a  process  of 
building  "line  upon  line,  precept  upon  precept." 

(3)  The  preacher's  method  is  one  of  sacred  oratory  in 
the  literal  sense  of  that  word.     The  teacher's  method  is 
usually  conversational. 

(4)  The  preacher  speaks  to  a  silent  audience.    Teaching 
as  a  rule  consists  of  the  interchange  of  question  and  answer, 
the  play  of  discussion  between  teacher  and  taught. 

(5)  The  preacher  speaks  to  a  large  number.    The  larger 
the  audience  the  more  inspired  are  his  utterances  likely  to 
be.    The  teacher  does  his  best  work  with  a  small  number. 

2.  Jesus  was  pre-eminently  a  teacher.    As  a  rule,  Jesus 
carried  his  auditors  with  Him  through  the  processes  by 
which  He  arrived  at  the  principles  He  presented;  He  did 
not  indulge  in  impassioned  utterances  intended  to  sweep 
men  into  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  by  the  force  of  eloquence; 


JESUS   AS   A   TEACHER  161 

one  can  hardly  imagine  that  He  was  other  than  conversa- 
tional in  His  method  of  teaching ;  we  find  Him  calling  out 
the  opinions  and  suggestions  of  His  auditors  and  building 
the  discussion  upon  them;  He  did  not  seem  to  covet  the 
opportunity  to  speak  to  multitudes,  but  dealt  with  the  few 
or  even  with  a  single  individual.  His  recorded  utterances 
that  might  be  designated  as  sermons  or  discourses  are  few 
in  number,  while  there  were  scores  of  personal  interviews 
or  talks  with  small  groups.  Of  course,  Jesus  did  preach  as 
well  as  teach.  It  is  said  of  Him  that  immediately  after 
His  temptation  He  began  to  preach.  He  applied  to  Him- 
self the  words  of  Isaiah,  "He  anointed  Me  to  preach  the 
good  tidings  to  the  poor."  But,  as  sometimes  happens  in 
the  case  of  a  preacher,  the  teaching  elements  of  His  preach- 
ing were  so  dominant  that  people  thought  of  Him  as  a 
teacher,  and  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  say  at  what  point 
He  was  preaching  and  at  what  point  He  was  teaching.  It 
is  recorded  of  Him  that  He  went  about  teaching  and  preach- 
ing, but  His  work  as  a  teacher  was  evidently  the  dominant 
impression  left  upon  the  minds  of  those  about  Him.  He 
was  familiarly  known  as  Rabbi,  Master,  the  title  given  by 
the.  Jews  to  their  teachers.  Several  times  it  is  said  of  Him 
that  He  taught  in  the  synagogue,  and  at  least  once  that  He 
taught  the  multitudes.  One  would  have  little  hesitation  in 
saying  that  His  greatest  work  was  in  the  training  of  the 
twelve  who  were  called  His  disciples  and  might  be  regarded 
as  His  class  of  students. 

3.  Elements  of  power  in  Jesus  as  a  teacher.  We  turn 
our  attention  to  those  characteristics  of  Jesus  which  mark 
Him  especially  as  a  teacher — the  characteristics  He  pos- 
sessed aside  from  the  spiritual  endowments  He  might  have 
had,  even  if  He  had  not  been  pre-eminently  a  teacher.  It 
would  be  interesting  for  the  student  to  go  through  the  In- 
terwoven Gospels,  making  note  of  each  reference  to  Jesus 
as  a  teacher,  and  from  these  statements  constructing  his 


162  THE    TEACHING   OF   BIBLE   CLASSES 

own  category  of  the  elements  which  contributed  to  the 
effectiveness  of  Jesus  as  a  teacher.  Those  who  cannot  take 
the  time  to  do  this  original  work  should  study  the  following 
passages  (the  first  verse  only  of  the  passage  in  any  case 
being  indicated) : 

John  1:14;  John  14:16. 

Matt.  7 :29 ;  Mark  1 :22. 

John  1 :35 ;  Luke  9 :55 ;  John  20 :27. 

Matt.  4 :1 ;  Luke  4:17;  Luke  24 :27. 

John  1 :48 ;  John  2 :24 ;  Luke  9 :47. 

Luke  4:17;  Luke  10:26. 

John  3 :1 ;  John  4 :1. 

Matt.  13 :1 ;  Matt.  25 :1 ;  Luke  15 :1. 

Matt.  21:19;  Matt  22:19;  John  13:14. 

Matt.  19 :21 ;  Matt.  12 :50. 

Matt.  5:46;  Matt.  7:3,  16. 

Mark  8 :36 ;  Luke  7 :40 ;  Luke  10 :25,  30. 

Matt.  21:24;  Matt.  22:45;  Luke  6:9. 

Luke  4 :20 ;  John  3 :3 ;  John  4 :10. 

Matt  12 :1 ;  Matt  26 :45 ;  Mark  6 :31. 

Luke  11:1;  John  15:15. 

Luke  4 :28 ;  John  4 :39. 

(1)  His  personality.    It  was  said  of  Him  that  He  was 
full  of  "grace  and  truth."    So  thoroughly  did  He  embody 
His  own  teaching  in  His  life,  so  much  of  an  example  was 
He  of  that  which  He  presented  in  His  teaching,  that  He 
could  say  of  Himself,  "I  am  the  truth." 

(2)  His  authority.     The  people  immediately  detected 
the  strong  note  in  His  teaching  and  distinguished  it  from 
the  teaching  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees.    Whether  it  was 
less  wavering,  less  mechanical,  more  consistent,  it  is  very 
evident  that  He  spoke  with  full  confidence  of  the  truth  of 
that  which  He  was  presenting. 

(3)  His  sympathy.    Whether  in  the  call  to  His  disciples, 
in  tender  response  to  their  hesitation,  "Come  and  see/'  or  in 


JESUS   AS   A    TEACHER  163 

His  patience  with  slow  learners,  as  in  His  rebuke  to  those 
who  would  bring  fire  upon  the  Samaritans  because  they 
would  not  receive  Him,  or  in  His  forbearance  with  the 
doubting  Thomas,  the  sympathy  of  Jesus  towards  those 
whom  He  would  teach  was  most  evident. 

(4)  His  simplicity.    "Without  a  parable,  He  spake  IK 
unto  them,"  and  yet  His  parables  in  their  superficial  mean- 
ing at  least  were  extremely  simple  as  were  all  His  illustra- 
tions.   The  Beatitudes,  the  teaching  about  the  bread  of  life, 
the  analogy  of  the  vine  and  the  branches,  are  all  clear 
and  transparent  and  marked  by  the  greatest  simplicity. 

(5)  His  knowledge  of  Scriptures.    So  familiar  was  He 
with  the  law  and  the  prophets  that  He  could  bring  immedi- 
ately to  bear  upon  the  tempter  appropriate  verses  of 'Scrip- 
ture, could  turn  without  hesitation  to  the  needed  place  in 
His  reading  in  the  synagogue,  or,  more  remarkable  still, 
could  charm  the  two  disciples  as  they  walked  to  Emmaus  by 
"beginning  from  Moses  and  from  all  the  prophets  and  in- 
terpreting to  them  all  the  Scriptures,  the  things  concerning 
Himself." 

(6)  His  knowledge  of  men.    It  is  said  of  Him  that  He 
"knew  all  men."    He  could  detect  the  "reasoning  of  the 
heart"  of  the  disciples  when  they  disputed  among  them- 
selves who  should  be  the  greatest.    He  excited  the  surprise 
of  Nathanael  by  being  able  to  detect  the  drift  of  his 
thoughts  while  ke  sat  under  the  fig  tree. 

(7)  He  proceeded  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.    To 
Nicodemus  He  unfolded  the  Sonship  of  God  in  the  terms 
of  the  new  birth  and  compared  the  moving  of  the  Spirit  of 
God  with  the  coming  and  going  of  the  wind.     With  the 
Samaritan  woman  He  proceeded  from  the  water  of  the  well 
to  the  living  water  of  which  if  she  should  drink  she  would 
not  thirst  again. 

(8)  His   adaptation.     Whether   with   Nicodemus,   the 
teacher  of  the  Jews,  or  with  the  humble  Samaritan  woman, 


164  THE    TEACHING    OF   BIBLE    CLASSES 

He  was  equally  natural  and  at  ease  in  the  manner  of  His 
approach  on  the  great  subjects  to  be  discussed  and  adapted 
His  teaching  with  equal  facility  to  both. 

(9)  His  illustrations.    Regarding  His  parables  as  illus- 
trations, as  indeed  they  were  in  essence,  the  reader  finds  a 
wealth   in  these  gems  scattered   in  bountiful   profusion 
throughout  the  teachings  of  Jesus.    Seven  of  them  are  gath- 
ered in  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  Matthew — the  parables  of 
the  sower,  the  good  seed  and  tares,  the  mustard  seed,  the 
leaven,  the  treasure  in  the  field,  the  goodly  pearls,  the  net ; 
three  of  them  in  the  fifteenth  chapter  of 'Luke — the  parables 
of  the  lost  sheep,  the  lost  coin,  and  the* lost  son;  two  of 
them  in  the  twenty-fifth  chapter  of  Matthew — the  parables 
of  the  ten  virgins  and  talents.    His  illustrations  are  always 
taken  from  a  sphere  familiar  to  His  hearers.     Nature  is 
the  most  fruitful  source  of  them;  the  lily,  the  harvest 
field,  the  tree,  the  vineyard — all  go  to  illustrate  and  enforce 
His  thought.   Object  illustrations  were  often  used  by  Him. 
The  washing  of  the  disciples'  feet,  the  blasting  of  the  fig 
tree,  the  tribute  money,  the  child  in  the  midst — all  help 
to  make  clear  great  spiritual  truths. 

(10)  He  excited  His  hearers  to  self-activity.    Jesus  was 
not  content  till  the  mental  processes  of  those  with  whom  He 
was  dealing  had  moved  them  to  action.    To  the  young  man 
from  whom  He  had  elicited  a  narration  of  the  moral  law, 
He  said,  "Go  sell."    To  those  who  told  Him  His  mother 
and  brethren  were  without  He  addressed  the  question,  "Who 
is  my  mother  and  who  are  my  brethren  ?"  and  then  added, 
'^Whosoever  shall  do  the  will  of  my  Father,  he  is  my  brother 
and  sister  and  mother." 

(11)  His  questions.    The  question  was  a  favorite  method 
with  Jesus  as  with  many  great  teachers  in  the  conveying 
of  truth.    "If  ye  love  them  that  love  you,  what  reward  have 
ye  ?"    "Why  beholdest  thou  the  mote  that  is  in  thy  brother's 
eye  but  considerest  not  the  beam  that  is  in  thine  own  eye  ?" 


JESUS    AS   A   TEACHER  165 

"Do  men  gather  grapes  of  thorns  or  figs  of  thistles?" 
"What  doth  it  profit  a  man  to  gain  the  whole  world  and 
forfeit  his  life?"  "What  is  written  in  the  law?"  He  said 
to  the  lawyer  who  asked  what  he  should  do  to  inherit  eternal 
life,  and,  to  permit  the  lawyer  to  make  his  own  interpreta- 
tion as  to  who  was  his  neighbor,  recited  the  story  of  the 
good  Samaritan.  When  He  would  stir  the  sensibilities  and 
arouse  the  conscience  of  Simon,  His  host,  He  told  the  story 
of  the  lender  and  the  two  debtors,  and  asked  the  searching 
question,  "Which  of  them  loved  him  the  most  ?"  Sometimes 
questions  were  asked,  not  so  much  to  convey  a  truth,  as  to 
confound  His  enemies.  Those  who  were  trying  to  implicate 
Him  in  His  teaching  found  themselves  between  the  two 
horns  of  a  dilemma  when  He  pointedly  asked,  "The  baptism 
of  John,  whence  was  it,  from  Heaven  or  from  men?" 
Equally  confounded  were  they  by  His  question,  "Is  it  lawful 
on  the  Sabbath  to  do  good  or  to  do  harm?  To  save  life 
or  to  destroy  it?"  and  by  that  other  one,  "If  David  then 
called  him.  Lord,  how  is  he  his  son  ?" 

(12)  He  excited  the  interest  and  attention  of  His  audi- 
tors.    The  curiosity  of  Nathanael  knew  no  bounds  when 
Jesus  spoke  of  his  experiences  under  the  fig  tree.    In  speak- 
ing to  the  Nazarenes,  it  is  said  of  Him,  "He  closed  the 
book  and  gave  it  back  and  sat  down,  and  the  eyes  of  all 
in  the  synagogue  were  fastened  upon  him."     He  excited 
the  interest  of  Nicodemus  by  the  saying,  "Except  a  man 
be  born  anew  he  cannot  see  the  Kingdom  of  God,"  and  that 
of  the  Samaritan  woman  by  His  saying,  "If  thou  knewest 
who  it  is  that  saith  unto  thee  'give  me  to  drink'  thou 
wouldst  have  asked  of  him  and  he  would  have  given  thee 
living  water." 

(13)  His  care  for  the  physical  condition  of  His  disciples. 
He  allowed  them  to  pluck  the  corn  in  the  corn  fields  through 
which  they  were  passing  on  the  Sabbath  day   and   de- 
fended them  in  the  act.    He  called  them  apart  into  a  desert 


166     THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 

place  after  their  return  from  a  tour  of  labor,  saying,  "Come 
apart  and  rest  awhile."  Tb  the  disciples  who  were  so  over- 
come that  they  could  not  watch  with  Him  during  His  agony, 
He  said  kindly  and  pathetically,  "Sleep  on  now  and  take 
your  rest." 

(14)  His  relation  to  His  disciples  aside  from  His  in- 
struction. They  are  spoken  of  as  "those  about  Him."  After 
He  had  finished  His  formal  instruction  they  came  to  Him 
and  said,  "Lord,  teach  us  to  pray."    He  called  them  His 
friends. 

(15)  He  aroused  the  conscience.    Whether  in  the  case 
of  the  Samaritan  woman,  whom  He  brought  to  a  knowledge 
of  her  sins  and  to  an  acceptance  of  Him,  or  of  the  N"aza- 
renes,  whom  He  also  convinced  of  their  unbelief,  and  drove 
to  desperation,  He  succeeded  in  stirring  convictions  and 
arousing  the  conscience. 

4.  Discouragements  of  Jesus  as  a  teacher: 

Matt.  26:56;  Luke  9:45;  John  12:16. 

Mark  3 :21 ;  John  7 :5 ;  20 :25. 

John  6 :26 ;  6  :66. 

Mark  14 :1 ;  Luke  6 :7 ;  John  8 :3. 

Matt  26 :31,  36 ;  Luke  6 :11, 12. 

Mark  16 :7 ;  Luke  9 :54 ;  John  20 :27. 

(1)  Many  of  those  whom  He  taught  did  not  understand 
Him.    This  was  not  only  true  of  those  who  were  strangers 
to  Him,  but  it  was  especially  true  of  His  own  race  and  of 

'  His  own  disciples.  It  is  said  especially  of  the  reference 
which  Jesus  made  in  advance  to  His  crucifixion  that  "they 
understood  not  this  saying  and  it  was  hid  from  them." 
More  than  once  it  is  said  that  they  understood  not  certain 
things  that  were  said  to  them  at  the  time,  and  it  was  only 
after  Jesus  had  been  crucified  and  risen  from  the  dead  that 
they  remembered  what  He  had  said. 

(2)  He  met  frequently  with  doubters.    His  brethren  did 
not  believe  in  Him.    His  friends  thought  He  was  beside 


JESUS   AS   A   TEACHER  167 

Himself.  His  disciple  Thomas  would  not  believe  unless  he 
were  permitted  to  put  his  finger  into  the  print  of  the  nails 
and  his  hand  into  the  side  of  the  wounded  Christ. 

(3)  Many  of  His  followers  sought  material  rather  than 
spiritual  benefits.     They  came  to  Him  because  they  had 
eaten  of  the  loaves  and  fishes  and  had  been  filled.    Whe~ 
He  spoke  of  His  approaching  trial  many  went  back. 

(4)  He  encountered  the  indifference  and  opposition  of 
men.    Which  was  harder  for  Jesus  to  bear  it  is  difficult  to 
say — the  apathy  of  those  who  simply  did  not  embrace  Hia 
instruction  or  the  antipathy  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees 
who  were  constantly  seeking  to  entrap  Him  and  finally  to 
put  Him  to  death. 

(5)  The  course  of  Jesus  in  these  discouragements  is  very 
suggestive. 

(a)  He  resorted  to  prayer.    When  the  Scribes  and  Phari- 
sees, "filled  with  madness,  communed  one  with  another 
what  they  might  do  with  Jesus,"  "He  went  out  into  the 
mountain  to  pray."    After  He  had  prophesied  that  they 
would  all  be  offended  in  Him  during  the  night  of  His  pas- 
sion, He  took  them  to  Gethsemane  and  went  aside  to  pray. 

(b)  His  patience  in  the  bearing  of  these  discouragements 
and  His  perseverance  in  following  up  those  whom  He 
sought  to  influence  were  most  marked.    When  He  had  risen 
from  the  dead,  He  said  to  Thomas,  "Reach  hither  thy  finger 
and  see  My  hands,  and  reach  thither  thy  hand  and  put 
it  into  My  side."    He  had  evidently  planned  that  the  news 
of  His  resurrection  should  be  carried  by  the  two  Marys 
to  His  disciples  and  Peter. 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

Imago  Christi.    Stalker,  pp.  261-280.     ($1.25.) 
Jesus  as  a  Teacher.    B.  A.  Hinsdale.     ($1.25.) 
Teacher  Training  with  the  Master  Teacher.    C.  S.  Beardelee. 
(50  cents.) 

How  to  Teach  the  Bible.    Gregory,  pp.  78-81. 
+The  Blackboard,  in  Sunday-school.    H.  T.  Bailey,  pp.  16-23. 


168  THE    TEACHING   OP   BIBLE   CLASSES 


ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

The  difference  between  teaching  and  preaching  is  partly 
that  preaching  may  appeal  to  the  emotions,  while  teaching 
appeals  to  the  understanding  only;  but  chiefly  that  the 
preacher  tries  to  bring  about  an  immediate  result,  to  lead  to 
conviction,  resolution,  and  amendment  before  the  end  of  the 
hour,  while  the  teacher  uses  a  more  patient  process,  takes  a 
longer  time  and  a  longer  look,  endeavors  to  prepare  the 
learner  to  listen  to  the  sermon,  and  to  assist  the  will  gradually 
by  informing  the  mind.  Principles  of  Religious  Education. 
Dean  George  Hodges,  p.  81. 

The  audiences  to  whom  Jesus  preached  numbered  thousands, 
the  men  to  whom  he  acted  as  teacher  numbered  only  twelve. 
Yet  perhaps  in  its  results  His  work  in  the  latter  capacity  was 
quite  equal  in  value  to  His  whole  work  as  a  preacher.  Imago 
Christi.  Stalker,  p.  163. 

When  poor,  discouraged,  imprisoned  John  sent  two  of  his 
disciples  to  inquire,  "Art  thou  he  that  should  come?"  Luke 
says  that  in  that  same  hour  Jesus,  instead  of  saying  the  simple 
word  Yes,  cured  many  of  their  infirmities,  and  plagues  and  of 
evil  spirits,  and  unto  many  that  were  blind  He  gave  sight 
Then  answering,  He  said  unto  them,  "Go  your  way  and  tell 
John  what  things  ye  have  seen  and  heard."  "Who  is  the  great- 
est in  the  kingdom  of  heaven?"  asked  the  disciples.  And 
Jesus  called  a  little  child  unto  him  and  set  him  in  the  midst 
of  them.  "What  thinkest  thou,"  asked  the  Herodians,  "is  it 
lawful  to  give  tribute  to  Caesar?"  "Show  me  the  tribute 
money,"  said  Jesus.  "Whose  image  and  superscription  is 
this?"  When  He  would  teach  the  greatness  of  a  service  He  took 
a  towel  and  girded  himself  and  afterward  said,  "If  I,  your 
Lord  and  Master,  have  washed  your  feet,  ye  also  ought  to  serve 
one  another."  When  He  would  teach  the  deepest  mysteries  of 
our  faith,  He  took  bread  and  gave  thanks  and  brake  it  and 
gave  it  unto  them,  saying,  "This  is  my  body  broken  for  you." 
Likewise  also  the  cup,  saying,  "This  cup  is  the  new  testament 
in  my  blood  which  is  shed  for  you."  When  the  object  itself 
could  not  be  had  He  used  mental  pictures.  Would  He  teach  the 
attitude  of  God  and  Father  toward  a  lost  world?  He  did  it  by 
that  vivid  panorama  of  the  prodigal  son.  Was  it  the  solicitude 
of  the  Spirit?  That  was  suggested  by  the  picture  of  a  woman 
searching  the  house  with  a  candle.  Did  he  wish  them  to  ap- 
preciate the  self-sacrificing  love  of  the  Son  of  God?  They  were 
to  recall  the  good  shepherd  leaving  the  ninety  and  nine  and 
going  through  darkness  and  danger  to  find  the  one  which  was 
lost.  The  Blackboard  in  Sunday-school.  Bailey,  pp.  19-20. 

That  was  the  way  in  which  our  Lord  and  His  disciples  fre- 
quently impressed  a  truth  to  which  they  attached  peculiar 
importance;  sometimes  with  a  slight  change  in  the  phrase- 
ology and  meaning  and  again  in  the  very  words  first  employed. 
"Jesus  looked  round  about,  and  saith  unto  His  disciples,  How 


JESUS   AS   A   TEACHER  169 

hardly  shall  they  that  have  riches  enter  into  the  kingdom  of 
God!  And  the  disciples  were  amazed  at  his  words.  But  Jesus 
answereth  again,  and  saith  unto  them,  Children,  how  hard  it 
is  for  them  that  trust  in  riches  to  enter  into  the  kingdom  of 
God!  It  is  easier  for  a  camel  to  go  through  a  needle's  eye, 
than  for  a  rich  man  to  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven." 
Again,  "Jesus  saith  to  Simon  Peter,  Simon,  son  of  John,  lovest 
thou  me  more  than  these?  He  saith  unto  him,  Yea,  Lord; 
thou  knowest  that  I  love  thee.  He  saith  unto  them,  Feed  my 
lambs.  He  saith  unto  him  the  second  time,  Simon,  son  of 
John,  lovest  thou  me?  He  saith  unto  him,  Yea,  Lord;  thou 
knowest  that  I  love  thee.  He  saith  unto  him,  Tend  my  sheep. 
He  saith  unto  him  the  third  time,  Simon,  son  of  John,  lovest 
thou  me?  Peter  was  grieved  because  he  said  unto  him  the 
third  time,  Lovest  thou  me?  And  he  said  unto  him,  Lord,  thou 
knowest  all  things;  thou  knowest  that  I  love  thee.  Jesus  said 
unto  him,  Feed  my  sheep."  Can  anyone  doubt  that  these 
truths  were  more  firmly  fastened  in  the  minds  of  their  hearers 
by  their  threefold  repetition  in  immediate  review?  Nor  was 
that  an  uncommon  method  with  our  Lord,  in  His  teaching. 
and  Teacher*.  Trumbull,  pp,  215-216. 


170     THE  TEACHING  OP  BIBLE  CLASSES 


XXV.    EXAMINATION 

(The  examination  should  be  a  written  one,  and  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  kind  of  questions  that  might  be  presented. 
The  students  will  answer  questions  1,  2,  11,  20,  and  select 
six  other  questions,  but  no  more.  If  more  than  ten  ques- 
tions are  answered  only  the  answers,  to  the  first  ten  should 
be  considered.  Each  answer  should  be  marked  on  the  basis 
of  ten  for  a  perfect  answer.  Of  the  100  possible  credits 
to  be  secured  in  this  way  for  perfect  answers  to  the  ten 
questions,  75  should  be  considered  necessary  to  pass  the 
examination. ) 

1.  Give  a  definition  of  teaching  which  shall  embody 
three  of  its  essential  elements. 

2.  Name  three  qualifications  for  teaching  that  bear  on 
the  relation  of  the  teacher  to  the  student. 

3.  Why  should  the  Bible  class  teacher  have  a  knowledge 
of  the  elementary  principles  of  instruction  possessed  by 
the  teacher  of  any  other  subject? 

4.  Designate  three  illustrations  of  common  effects  of 
body  on  mind  and  spirit,  and  three  illustrations  of  common 
effects  of  mind  and  spirit  on  body,  and  indicate  at  least 
one  application  of  these  effects  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Bible. 

5.  Designate  at  least  three  characteristics  of  early  adoles- 
cence and  indicate  how  these  should  modify  biblical  in- 
struction at  this  age. 

6.  Indicate  three  methods  growing  out  of  the  treatment 
of  the  subject  of  securing  and  retaining  attention. 

7.  What  is  helpful  to  memory  in  teaching,  and  what 
bearing  has  this  on  the  memorizing  of  Scripture? 


EXAMINATION  171 

8.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  imagination  to  memory? 
Of  what  use  is  the  imagination  in  Bible  study? 

9.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  feelings  to  character  and 
conduct  ? 

10.  What  gain  does  habit  bring,  to  living? 

11.  What  is  the  chief  faculty  of  the  spiritual  nature 
and  with  what  mental  capacity  would  you  compare  it? 

12.  To  what  in  the  student  should  the  teacher  adapt 
himself  in  his  teaching?    What  is  Apperception? 

13.  Describe  the  inductive  and  deductive  methods  of 
Bible  study. 

14.  Name  three  objects  of  the  review. 

15.  Designate  five  characteristics  of  a  good  question. 

16.  What  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  a  good  illus- 
tration? 

17.  Give  the  principal  steps  in  a  lesson  study,  and  a 
teaching  plan. 

18.  What  responsibility  has  the  teacher  for  the  student 
outside-  of  the  classroom? 

19.  What  in  your  opinion  is  the  chief  difficulty  an  inex- 
perienced teacher  has  to  contend  with  in  teaching? 

20.  Name  at  least  three  characteristics  of  Jesus  as  a 
teacher,  aside  from  the  spiritual  endowments  which  He 
might  have  had,  even  if  He  had  not  been  pre-eminently  a 
teacher. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  QUOTATIONS. 

Bible  knowledge  is  to  be  secured  through  the  same  mental 
processes  as  any  other  knowledge,  and  the  testing  of  the 
knowledge  gained  by  a  scholar  in  the  study  of  the  Bible  must 
be  by  the  same  method  as  his  testing  in  any  other  department 
of  knowledge.  Teaching  and  Teachers.  Trumbull,  p.  199. 

When  classes  reach  an  average  of  ninety  per  cent,  and  up- 
wards in  a  written  examination,  the  fact  may  be  usually  ac- 
cepted as  evidence  that  both  tests  and  instruction  have  been 
grooved,  or  that  much  time  has  been  wasted  in  drilling  the 
more  backward  pupils  to  the  sacrifice  of  time  and  opportunity 
on  the  part  of  other  pupils.  Elements  of  Pedagogy.  White, 
p.  203. 


APPENDIX 


THE  OKGANIZATION  AND  CONDUCT  OF  A  CLASS 
IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  BIBLE  CLASSES 


APPENDIX  175 


APPENDIX 


The  Organization  and  Conduct  of  a  Class  in  the  Teaching 
of  Bible  Classes. 

DEMONSTRATION  OF  A  METHOD  OF  TEACHING. 

A  demonstration  of  a  method  of  teaching  by  members  of  the 
class  in  turn  should  be  a  feature  of  each  lesson  period.  That 
is,  a  member  of  the  class  appointed  one  or  two  weeks  in  ad- 
vance should  conduct  the  class  over  a  Bible  lesson  by  the  same 
method  which  he  follows  in  conducting  the  class  of  which  he 
may  be  the  teacher. 

The  following  division  of  an  hour  is  suggested: 

8: 00  to  8:05  P.  M.— Opening. 

8:05  to  8:10  P.  M.— Review. 

8:10  to  8:30  P.M.— A  study  of  principles. 

8:30  to  8:35  P.M. — Assignment  of  next  lesson  and  of  work 

thereon. 
8:35  to  8:50  P.M. — A  study  of  methods:    The  teaching  of  a 

lesson. 
8:50  to  9:00  P.M. — Comments  on  method. 

Of  course  a  member  of  the  class  cannot  in  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  cover  an  entire  lesson  which  as  a  teacher  of  his  own 
class  he  occupies  a  half  hour  or  an  hour  in  covering.  He  can, 
however,  demonstrate  his  method  of  teaching  in  a  few  min- 
utes, and  disclose  the  characteristics  and  faults  of  his  ordinary 
teaching.  He  should  be  allowed  to  proceed,  however,  as  though 
he  had  the  usual  lesson  period,  arrested  a  minute  or  two  before 
the  expiration  of  the  time  and  given  an  opportunity  to  present 
the  closing  suggestions  of  the  lesson.  It  would  be  helpful  if 
the  member  appointed  to  render  this  service  would  place  on 
the  blackboard  in  advance  of  the  session  a  brief  outline  of  the 
teaching  plan  of  the  entire  lesson  so  that  the  teaching  of  a 
portion  of  the  lesson  may  be  judged  in  relation  to  the  whole. 
Arrangements  for  the  class  occasionally  to  visit  or  be  visited 
by  expert  teachers  would  be  desirable.  The  members  of  the 
class  should  be  encouraged  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  studying 
the  methods  of  the  most  successful  teachers,  visiting  various 
Bible  classes  and  reporting  on  the  methods  used.  Successful 


176  APPENDIX 

teachers  should  be  interviewed  as  to  their  methods  of  prep- 
aration and  instruction.  Members  of  the  class  might  prof- 
itably visit  the  public  schools,  or  college  classrooms,  and  report 
on  the  methods  of  instruction  there  observed,  and  on  the 
difference  in  methods  followed  in  the  teaching  during  earlier 
and  later  adolescence. 

COMMENTS  ON  METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

The  comments  of  the  members  of  the  class  on  the  method 
of  teaching  should  be  specific  and  searching.  They  should 
not  be  allowed  to  degenerate  into  complimentary  platitudes, 
On  the  other  hand,  they  should  be  sympathetic.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  criticism  is  a  judgment  on  the  merits  as 
well  as  on  the  demerits  of  a  production.  Therefore,  an  effort 
should  be  made  to  emphasize  the  good  points  of  the  teaching 
method  as  well  as  the  defects.  The  comments  on  method 
should  run  to  some  extent  along  the  line  of  the  principles  of 
teaching  which  have  been  considered.  Among  the  comments 
that  were  offered  in  the  course  of  a  season  in  a  class  of  this 
kind  were  the  following: 

The  teacher  talked  too  much  himself. 

Made  practical  application  of  the  subject  to  the  daily  life  of 
the  student 

Made  New  Testament  application  of  an  Old  Testament 
lesson. 

Manner  attractive  to  the  class  from  the  outset 

Assumed  position  of  leadership. 

No  wasting  of  time. 

Showed  preparation. 

Selected  salient  points  of  lesson  for  emphasis. 

Too  much  sameness  in  teaching — not  enough  variety. 

Should  have  illustrated  on  a  blackboard. 

Did  not  ask  questions. 

Teaching  too  abstract 

No  practical  point  to  instruction. 

Outline  carefully  prepared. 

Began  with  a  good  story. 

Was  interested  himself. 

Read  scriptural  references  himself. 

Interpreted  the  lesson  in  terms  of  daily  life. 

Alert  manner. 

Good  illustration  of  "Thy  word  is  a  lamp." 

Although  a  lesson  for  boys,  used  no  drawing. 

Took  grasshoppers  as  a  point  of  contact 

Began  with  references  to  the  present-day  politician. 

Commenced  the  lesson  with  a  diagram. 

The  lack  of  the  picture  element  in  a  lesson  from  the  32d 
Psalm;  no  attempt  to  illuminate  such  words  as  "Transgres- 
sion," "Sin,"  "Waxing  old  of  bones,"  "Moisture." 

Presented  effective  incident  and  appeal  at  the  close. 

Appealed  to  love  of  heroism. 

Made  practical  application  of  the  lesson. 


APPENDIX  177 

Questioned  the  students  in  rotation  in  order  of  seating. 

Made  an  earnest  appeal  to  the  members  of  the  class. 

Made  the  members  of  the  class  think. 

Presented  the  truth  to  the  class  through  his  own  personality. 

Used  language  beyond  the  comprehension  of  class. 

Evidently  had  a  plan  for  the  lesson. 

Presented  clear  outline  of  the  whole  lesson. 

Proceeded  systematically. 

Did  not  review  before  commencing  the  lesson  in  hand. 

Had  good  way  of  asking  questions. 

riad-  prepared  his  questions. 

Did  not  give  due  weight  to  all  answers. 

Did  not  address  questions  to  special  men. 

Answered  a  question  not  answered  immediately  by  class. 

Used  elliptical  questions. 

Made  a  good  word  picture  of  the  scene. 

Good  contrasts. 

Should  have  had  a  map. 

Was  drawn  into  controversy. 

Made  an  appeal  to  conscience. 

THE  COURSE  OF  BIBLE  STUDY. 

Two  plans  may  be  observed  in  the  selection  of  courses  of 
Bible  lessons  to  be  used  in  such  a  class: 

(1)  If  the  class  is  composed  of  leaders  of  other  groups, 
and  membership  in  the  class  is  conditioned  on  the  leadership 
of  such  a  group,  a  single  course  of  Bible  study  might  well  be 
followed,  and  the  common  lesson  of  the  following  week  taught 
at  each  session.    This  course  might  be  one  of  the  elementary 
courses  of  a  graded  plan,  and  the  selection  of  a  course  of 
study  from  among  them  would  result  in  the  multiplying  of 
the  number  of  students  entering  upon  the  elementary  stages 
of  this  work  and  so  prepared  to  be  advanced  from  grade  to 
grade. 

(2)  If  the  members  of  the  class  are  already  teachers  of 
other  classes  the  selection  of  Bible  lessons  to  be  taught  in  the 
class  might  be  postponed  till  the  class  is  brought  together 
and  organized,  and  a  course  then  selected  which  would  be 
profitable  to  the  largest  number,  or  a   selection   of  lessons 
might  be  made  from  the  various  courses  represented  in  the 
class. 

THE  TEACHER. 

One  need  not  necessarily  be  an  expert  teacher  in  order  to 
conduct  such  a  course  of  study  as  this  in  the  principles  of 
teaching.  The  elementary  principles  of  teaching  are  now  so 
well  known  and  are  to  such  an  extent  common  property  as  to 
justify  others  than  professional  teachers  in  attempting  the 
leadership  of  such  a  class. 

If  more  expert  leadership  is  required,  a  school  principal 
or  other  teacher,  or  a  peculiarly  qualified  minister  or  other 
professional  man,  might  be  available  as  a  teacher  of  the  class. 


178  APPENDIX 

SELECTION  OF  MATERIAL. 

The  lessons  on  the  principles  of  teaching  outlined  in  this 
book  will  doubtless  be  found  to  contain  too  much  to  be  covered 
in  the  time  allotted  to  them  in  the  lesson  period,  and,  perhaps, 
even  for  home  study  by  members  of  the  class.  A  selection  of 
portions  especially  suited  to  the  needs  and  capacity  of  the 
student  should  be  made  by  the  teacher  and  assigned  in  ad- 
vance. A  few  points  firmly  fixed  in  the  mind  will  be  more 
profitable  than  a  hurried  consideration  of  a  large  number. 

Henry  Clay  Trumbull  says:  "The  question  of  getting 
through  with  a  Bible  lesson  in  a  given  time  has  really  little 
or  nothing  to  do  with  the  length  of  the  lesson  itself.  One 
verse  might  occupy  a  teacher  for  a  life-time.  And  a  complete 
lesson  could  be  taught  about  the  whole  Bible  in  ten  minutes. 
A  teacher  has  no  more  right  to  expect  to  serve  out  to  his  class 
all  that  he  finds  in  a  lesson,  than  a  guest  at  a  first-class  hotel 
has  to  eat  every  dish  that  he  finds  noted  on  the  dinner  bill  of 
fare,  from  -soup  to  confectionery."  In  the  same  strain  the  Su- 
perintendent of  Schools  of  New  York  City  says:  "The  teacher 
should  have  the  ability  to  pick  out  essentials  and  disregard 
the  other  things.  This  is  the  only  solution  of  the  problem  of 
the  so-called  overcrowded  course  of  study.  The  fault  lies  with 
the  teacher." 

The  teachers  of  classes  composed  of  older  boys  who  are  lead- 
ing classes  of  younger  boys  should  be  especially  careful  in 
their  selection  of  material.  The  more  abstruse  points  of  the 
lesson  should  be  omitted.  For  example,  in  the  study  of  Les- 
son 6  on  Interest  and  Attention,  the  nature  of  attention  might 
be  omitted  and  emphasis  laid  on  methods  of  securing  atten- 
tion. Whole  lessons  might  be  advantageously  omitted  in  such 
classes,  notably  some  of  those  in  Part  II,  bearing  on  the  intel- 
lectual powers.  It  will  be  safe  to  omit  these  subjects  if  it  is 
found  that  they  have  not  been  covered  in  any  one  of  their 
aspects  by  the  same  boys  in  their  school  work.  The  time 
gained  by  these  omissions  could  profitably  be  spent  in  fre- 
quent reviews. 

CONDUCT  OF  THE  LESSONS  IN  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 
TEACHING. 

An  effort  should  be  made  to  have  members  of  the  class  put 
in  concrete  forms  the  abstract  principles  in  these  lessons.  For 
example,  illustrations  of  the  principle  of  proceeding  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown,  the  point  of  contact,  the  connection  of 
the  body  and  the  mind.  Especially  should  students  be  expected 
to  suggest  concrete  examples  and  illustrations  of  principles 
from  the  Scriptures. 

The  student  should  be  expected  to  make  notes.  The  black- 
board should  be  in  constant  requisition.  The  teacher  might 
write  on  the  blackboard  each  point  that  is  developed,  giving 
the  precise  form  of  the  statement  that  the  student  is  expected 
to  transcribe  in  his  notes. 

General  reviews  should  be  conducted  frequently.    Such  sec- 


APPENDIX  179 

tions  as  the  first  three  lessons  constituting  Part  I  of  the 
course,  or  Lessons  6,  7,  and  8,  covering  the  intellectual  facul- 
ties, should  be  reviewed  together.  The  review  midway  in  the 
course  will  prepare  for  the  final  review  or  examination,  and 
should  therefore  be  more  formal  and  might  be  a  written  one. 
The  demonstration  of  methods  of  teaching  might  be  suspended 
after  Lesson  19.  The  work  outlined  for  Lessons  20  and  21 
will  easily  occupy  the  entire  hour,  and  a  portion  of  the  time 
of  Lessons  22,  23,  and  24  might  be  spent  in  reviewing  the 
entire  course  in  blocks  of  seven  lessons  each,  leading  up  to 
the  examination  at  the  close. 

The  teacher  of  such  a  class  will  naturally  conduct  it  as  far 
as  possible  by  the  question  and  conversational  method.  Each 
teacher  will  find  his  own  questions  the  most  effective,  but  in 
order  to  suggest  the  type  of  questions  that  will  bring  out  the 
knowledge  of  the  student  concerning  these  subjects,  questions 
for  the  first  three  lessons  are  here  appended: 

Lesson  1. 

What  are  the  three  objects  of  teaching? 

What  are  the  three  objects  of  teaching  Bible  classes? 

Wherein  lies  the  importance  of  knowledge? 

Is  the  teaching  process  from  within  or  without? 

Give  an  original  definition  of  teaching,  or  select  one  that 
comes  nearest  to  your  idea  of  the  process. 

What  relation  does  the  teacher  bear  to  the  activities  of  the 
student? 

Designate  some  kinds  of  knowledge  that  the  boy  secures  with- 
out a  teacher. 

What  advantages  come  to  the  student  from  the  securing  of 
knowledge  through  self-activity? 

What  kind  of  activities  is  the  teaching  of  the  Bible  intended 
to  stimulate? 

What  is  education? 

What  relation  does  teaching  bear  to  education? 

What  is  the  principal  object  of  Bible  teaching? 

Lesson  2. 

What  twofold  relation  does  the  teacher  bear? 

What   should   characterize    the   teacher's    knowledge   of   the 

Bible? 
How  may  the  subject  under  instruction  come  between  the 

teacher  and  the  student? 
What  kind  of  knowledge  of  the  student  should  the  teacher 

have? 
Why  is  it  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  be  an  example  to  the 

student? 
What  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  teacher  may  become  a 

friend  of  the  student? 

teaching  qualifications  should 

UNIVERSITY 


180  APPENDIX 

Lesson  3. 
What  two  kinds  of  preparation  does  the  teacher  need  for  his 

work? 
What  twofold  preparation  in  subject-matter  should  the  teacher 

make? 

What  may  enter  into  the  general  preparation  of  a  teacher? 
What  kind  of  preparation  in  Bible  study  should  the  teacher 

have? 
Why  should  the  teacher  make  special  preparation  for  each 

lesson,  although  familiar  with  the  ground  to  be  covered? 
Why  is  method  important? 
What  are  natural  teachers? 
What  is  religious  pedagogy? 

Why  apply  the  principles  of  pedagogy  to  biblical  instruction? 
What  misuse  of  the  science  of  teaching  may  the  teacher  make? 
What  is  meant  by  the  science  and  art  of  teaching? 

REFERENCES  FOR  READING. 

The  following  books  are  those  to  which  most  frequent  refer- 
ence is  made  in  these  lessons.  All  of  them  might  well  be 
placed  at  the  outset  in  a  library  where  they  would  be  ac- 
cessible to  members  of  the  class.  The  sixteen  volumes  may 
be  secured  at  an  expense  of  less  than  $15,  list  prices.  Other 
books  than  these  may  be  distinguished  in  the  lists  following 
the  lessons  by  the  mention  of  prices  in  the  first  list  in  which 
they  occur.  The  most  valuable  books  which  at  the  same  time 
are  the  most  available  and  popular  reference  books  for  the 
particular  lesson  in  connection  with  which  they  are  suggested 
are  indicated  by  a  star. 

The  Seven  Laws  of  Teaching.    John  M.  Gregory.     (50  cents.) 

How  to  Teach  the  Bible.    John  M.  Gregory.    (15  cents.) 

Teaching  and  Teachers.    Henry  Clay  Trumbull.     ($1.25.) 

Talks  to  Teachers.    William  James.     ($1.50.) 

The  Teacher's  Hand  Book  of  Psychology.  James  Sully.  ($2.00.) 

Psychology  in  Education.    Ruric  M.  Roark.     ($1.00.) 

Elements  of  Pedagogy.    Emerson  E.  White.     ($1.00.) 

Principles  of  Religious  Education.     ($1.25.) 

Principles  and  Ideals  for  the  Sunday  School.  E.  D.  Burton  and 

Shailer  Mathews.     ($1.00.) 

Primer  on  Teaching.    John  Adams.     (20  cents.) 
The  Teacher  and  the  Child.    H.  Thistelton  Mark.    ($1.00.) 
The  Spiritual  Life.    George  Albert  Coe.    ($1.00.) 
Education  in  Religion  and  Morals.  George  Albert  Coe.  ($1.35.) 
The  Point  of  Contact  in  Teaching.     Patterson  DuBois.     (76 

cents. ) 

Revised  Normal  Lessons.  Jesse  Lyman  Hurlbut.  (25  cents.) 
Normal  Course.  (2  vols.)  George  W.  Pease.  (25  cents  each.) 


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